Put forward the following questions: the origin and cultural characteristics of "scholar" in the Warring States period.

During the Warring States period, from Wang Ting to the bottom of society, the figure of "scholar" can be seen everywhere. Exploring the activities of this class is very beneficial to deeply understand the social life, especially the political culture, during the Warring States period.

First, the classification of scholars

According to rough statistics, there are more than 100 titles and special nouns centered on "scholar" in the Warring States literature. This not only shows the complexity of the gentry class, but also shows that their activities are all over the society. In order to distinguish different taxis, people at that time began to classify taxis. Mozi Zashou divided scholars into "advisers", "warriors", "skillful scholars" and "envoys". The Book Emperor of Shang Jun divides scholars into talkers, Chu Shi, warriors, craftsmen and businessmen. Zhuangzi Xu Wugui divided scholars into intellectuals, debaters, judges, scholars from China, powerful people, brave people, military reform people, withered people, legal people and brave people. According to the characteristics and social status of scholars, it can be roughly divided into three parts:

(1) samurai. Among them, there are different categories. The first category is the armed forces of the country. Due to different skills, positions, arms and countries, there are various titles: Selector, Trainee, Sharp, Elite, Good Man, Knight Rider, Archer, Talented Geisha, Samurai, and Swordsman. The second kind is chivalrous. In ancient books, they were called "Xia", "Jie Xia" and "Ranger". These people are brave and die for their bosom friends. The third category is "Lux", which refers to strong and brave people.

2 scribes. "Biography of Han Poetry" Volume 7 says: "A gentleman avoids three ends: the pen end of a scholar, the front end of a warrior and the tongue end of a debater." Here, the author is called a scribe. In fact, intellectuals, including debaters, can all be called scribes. As early as the early Warring States period, Mozi had distinguished the characteristics and different types of scribes. He said that people with virtue are "virtuous, eloquent and knowledgeable in Taoism" [1]. Morality, speech and Taoism should be said to be the classification of scholars. There were more than thirty or forty titles about scholars in Historical Records of the Warring States Period. These dozens of appellations can be roughly divided into the following categories. The first category can be called moral type. This kind of taxi aims at moral cultivation. So at that time, many people defined or summarized the characteristics and essence of scholars in the sense of moral quality. For example, Confucius said, "Scholars aim at Tao." [2] "Lu's Spring and Autumn Annals" recorded the dialogue with the King of Qi: "Yue:' Today there are people who are filial, loyal to the monarch, the letter of making friends, and the consideration of living in the hometown. Are you a scholar with these four walkers? "The King of Qi said,' This is really a so-called scholar.' The names of moral people include: general scholars, male scholars, Shi Zhi, Shi Zhi, monks, good scholars, believers, Shi Lian, Jinshi and Zheng Shi. The second category can be described as intelligence. These people focus on knowledge and apply what they have learned. They have the following titles: scribe, wanderer, warlock, wise man, legal person, eloquent man, lobbyist, tourist official, judge and craftsman. Hermits can be said to be attached to or combined with the above two categories, and such scholars are not officials for various reasons. Not being an official does not mean that everyone does not care about the national economy and people's livelihood, social and political events; On the contrary, some hermits have made many comments on the gains and losses of current politics, and even put forward a systematic theory, which has become a unified statement. Some hermits have a high reputation in society. The monarch sent envoys to extend their employment again and again, but they refused to be ordered. Some hermits are temporary, and seclusion is just a wait-and-see technique. There are also the following titles that are the same as or similar to hermits: lay man, Chu Shi, Valley man, Hehai man, cave man, noble birth man, noble life man, idle man and so on. The third category can be described as skill type. These people can be divided into three parts: technicians, businessmen and alchemists. Skilled talents refer to people with one skill and special skills. "Shang Jun Ji Di Shu" says: "The talent of a skillful craftsman lies in his hand." Han Fei? Son? Xian Xue said: "Today's business officials and capable people also eat without raising." A businessman refers to a person who manages industry and commerce. For example, Guan Zhong and Bao Shu were both in business in their early years. Fan Li is a typical scholar who gets rich by doing business. Zi Gong is both a scholar and a big businessman. Bai Gui was also a famous taxi and businessman during the Warring States Period. In the Warring States period, there was a saying that "a businessman's talent lies in his body", just as the book Shang Jun Counting Land said. An alchemist refers to a writer who divines, wizards, fortune-teller, geomantic omen, and seeks fairy medicine. For example, "Xunzi flies like an elephant": "Liang has Tang Ju, but people's shapes and colors are known, and good or bad luck is known. Demons are auspicious." During the Warring States period, such scholars were quite active, and some of them participated in national politics. "Jing has a kind person, who speaks clearly and smells in the country. When Zhuang Wang saw it, he asked [3] after the reunification of Qin Shihuang, "There are many literary warlocks who want to preach peace. The alchemist wants to practice as an imperial doctor "[4].

(3) junior officials. Some junior officials call them "scholars". Specifically, there are the following situations: one is that the subordinate officials of judicial personnel are called "scholars", and "Mencius Liang Wang Hui Xia" contains: "If judges can't rule scholars, then what?" A "judge" is a senior judicial official, and a "judge" is a junior official with a paper rank. The second kind refers to officials at the grass-roots level. Such scholars have their own places of governance, such as the saying in "No Attack": "Scholars can't govern their own affairs." Guan Zi Ba Guan called likui jy a scholar. The third type generally refers to various officials. Sacrificial ceremony: "Scholars, there are no temples in Shu Ren." Note: "Ordinary people belong to government officials."

Some of them are difficult to classify. Such as Warrior, Kingdom of Stone, Shi Xiu, Shi Jun, Martyr, Shi Hao, Che and Du. Through the above classification, we can see the complexity of scholars and their wide distribution in society, indicating that scholars are the most active class in society.

Second, the position of scholars in society.

Because the composition of scholars is very complicated, their social status can not be the same. Therefore, the social status of scholars can only be investigated from different levels.

(A) the relationship between scholars and grades

In the Spring and Autumn Period, scholars were basically the first level in the hierarchy. By the Warring States period, the hierarchy had undergone major changes. On the basis of the old hierarchy, the Qin Dynasty formulated twenty ranks, which made the hierarchy more complicated and thorough. The situation of the six countries in Shandong is not clear, but in general, it is also developing in the direction of complexity and carefulness. Another feature of the hierarchy in the Warring States period was that people were included in it, and people's titles appeared. In the hierarchical system of the Warring States, scholars are not all hierarchical concepts, but they are all related to hierarchy.

In the imperial decrees, except for the male scholar and the 20th Qin Gong, there is no explicit stipulation that Shandong should regard the scholar as a rank. But in many writings at that time, scholars were often regarded as a specific level.

The order of Shu Ren-scholar-doctor-vassal-Sangong-Tian Zi described in many articles of Mozi can be regarded as both an administrative system and a hierarchical system.

More works discuss the etiquette and customs of marriage, funeral, dress and diet, and regard scholars as a specific rank between doctors and Shu Ren. Mencius burying his mother is different from burying his father. He buried his mother three times and his father five times because "the former is a scholar and the latter is a doctor" [6]. This example shows that there is a clear line between doctors and doctors.

In social life habits, people also regard scholars as a specific class. Xunzi Wang Zhi: "Agriculture, scholars, industry and commerce." "Mencius Li Lou": "If you kill a scholar without guilt, then the doctor can go; If you are innocent and slaughter people, then you can move. "

In addition, in the works of various philosophers, there are also records of reclassification among scholars. "Mozi Festival Funeral" contains: "The funeral of the staff sergeant." The so-called "staff sergeant" and corporal are obviously different. In Xunzi Zheng Lun, scholars are divided into Yuan scholars and ordinary scholars. Before the Spring and Autumn Period, scholars were graded; I'm afraid the records of grades in the Warring States period are only historical relics.

Judging from the historical development of the Warring States period, scholars are in a period of transition from rank to social stratum. Grade is stipulated by the government expressly or customary law. Social stratum is different from hierarchy, which is formed by many factors, the most important of which is the way of social activities. However, in a hierarchical society, the stratum cannot but be influenced and restricted by the hierarchical system. Therefore, in habit, people still regard scholars as a higher rank than the people, which is a phenomenon in the transition period.

(2) Scholar-officials

"Scholar-bureaucrat" is a new concept in the Warring States Period. [7] Before this, doctors ranked behind doctors. In the ancient books of the Warring States period, the official rank sequence is still represented by "doctor". "Xunzi's Theory of Rites" said: "The doctor has a constant Sect." "Lu Chunqiu Shang Nong" contains: "Therefore, the son of heaven personally led the vassal States to cultivate the land of the son of heaven, and all doctors and scholars made achievements." On the surface, scholar-officials and scholar-officials are just reversed, which actually reflects a major change: scholar-officials emphasize hierarchy; Scholar-bureaucrat refers to the stratum, which is characterized by a mixture of intellectuals and bureaucrats. In short, no matter before the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, a doctor refers to a person with a certain official position and title, and his social status is higher than that of a scholar. Why are scholars often crowned before doctors since the Warring States Period? This is the result of the rise of bureaucracy and the talent of scholars. Some people who came from a scholar rose to the top with their own talents, and a group of well-dressed figures appeared. On the other hand, doctors in the Warring States period are different from those in the Spring and Autumn Period. During the Spring and Autumn Period, doctors were mostly enfeoffed by clansmen and hereditary. Doctors in the Warring States period are evolving into a position and title in the bureaucratic system. Most doctors are no longer enfeoffed by clans, nor are they generally hereditary. Most of them are driven by scholars. "Scholar-bureaucrat" is the conceptual reflection of the above situation. From the perspective of the times, this concept became popular only after the mid-Warring States period. Look from the connotation, the scholar-officials mainly include the following two aspects:

One refers to officials and people with positions. "Zhou Li Kao Gong Ji" says: "Sitting and talking about Tao is called a maharaja. Do what you do and call a scholar-bureaucrat. " In modern terms, a scholar-bureaucrat is a functional official. "Ink? Son? " "Three Debates" criticizes "the scholar-officials are tired of treating them". This refers to all officials. "The Warring States Policy Qin Ce II" contains: "Congratulation from all the scholars. "The scholar-officials here refer to the ministers and kings of the Chu court." "Xunzi Wang Ba" says: "Farmers divide their fields and plough, while Jia divides their goods and sells them. All the workers divide their work and persuade them, and the literati listen to them. "Scholar-officials here refer to all people who are on the job." Jundao also says: "People can do their own things and do their own things according to virtue and according to their abilities. It is obvious that the upper saint is the third, the second saint is the vassal, and the lower saint is the scholar-bureaucrat. "Scholar-officials refer to officials below the governor. Civil servants are called literati, and military officers are also called literati. " Xun's Zi Yibing says: "Drums will die, officials will die and scholars will die." "History": "So (Wei) Wuhou set up a temple, which is the third product of literati. "

There is no clear stipulation as to which level of officials are called scholar-officials. According to some materials, they are generally middle and upper-level bureaucrats. "Xunzi Gentleman" said: "The holy king is above, and the righteousness is below, then the literati will not commit adultery, the officials will not be lazy, and the common people will not commit adultery." Here, the scholar-officials are placed above the officials. "Jundao" ranks scholar-officials before "officials and teachers". The teacher of one official is the head of a hundred officials. The article "Powerful Country" said: "If you have made great contributions, you will enjoy their achievements, and ministers will enjoy their achievements. Scholar-bureaucrats will benefit from grades, and Shu Ren will benefit from grades. " "The Theory of Tao" said: "Jue Liezun, Gong Luhou, the situation wins, the emperor at the top, and the scholar-officials at the bottom of the Qing Dynasty." All the above materials show that scholar-officials have a higher position in the bureaucracy. Because scholar-officials are relatively senior officials, the fields they enjoy are different from those in cities. "Hey? Son? "Honor and Disgrace" said: "The reason why the scholar-officials chose Yi Tian is that they are determined to practice and govern for the officials, so that they can go up and down." According to the Book of Rites, the number of fields and towns occupied by literati is different, that is, "those who have five times as much land" and "those who have three times as much land". Some scholars seem to have private soldiers. The Warring States Policy Qi Ce Wu: "The armor of soldiers, the private parts of officials, and the hiding place of literati ..."

Secondly, it refers to literati with certain social status.

After Meng Qi County fell from power, his public guests left in succession. These officials were called "scholars" in Historical Records and Biography of Meng Changjun, and "scholar-bureaucrats" when describing the same event in Warring States Policy and Qi Ce Si. "Everything is done by Han Feizi" says: "Today's scholars are not ashamed of mud ugliness." It means that a scholar-bureaucrat is an immoral official. Here, a scholar-bureaucrat and an official have two meanings, and a scholar-bureaucrat refers to a literate person. It can be seen that a scholar-bureaucrat can refer to an on-the-job bureaucrat, an off-the-job intellectual, or both. Since then, scholar-officials have formed a special group in the history of China. They are the product of the combination of intellectuals and bureaucrats, and they are the adhesive between them.

(3) scholars and scholars Shu Ren.

"Qi Yu of Guoyu" records that Guan Zhong governs Qi and implements the separation of scholars, agriculture, industry and commerce. There are also four kinds of people in Gu Liangzhuan: "There were four kinds of people in ancient times: scholars, businessmen, farmers and workers." But in short, scholars and people are different and belong to different grades. There are many examples of the division between scholars and civilians in the annals of the Warring States. For example, "Xunzi Chen Dao" said: "People should be close to it, and scholars should believe it." Guan Fu Shuo: "Those who are good at governing the country ... are brave and humble, and Shu Ren loves agriculture and hates food, so he makes good use of his wealth." Here, scholars and Shu Ren are divided into two factions. The former refers to brave soldiers; The latter takes cultivation as their profession. However, in the Warring States period, "scholar" and "scholar Shu Ren" became two popular concepts. In some old notes, scholar and scholar Shu Ren are often divided into scholar and people, scholar and Shu Ren. This division is not unreasonable, but from a large number of records, scholars and scholars Shu Ren has become a fixed phrase. There are some people in society who are both scholars and people. "Mencius Li Lou" said: "The son of heaven is ruthless and does not protect the four seas; The princes are heartless and do not protect the country; Doctor Qing is ruthless and does not protect the ancestral temple; The stone is ruthless and does not protect the four bodies. " "Guan Zi Da Kuang" contains: "You have a doctor who doesn't remonstrate, but Shu Ren is kind. If the doctor doesn't go in, he can be punished." As can be seen from these records, Shu Ren has been regarded as the same level.

The main occupations of literati are farming and fighting. "Lu's Filial Piety in the Spring and Autumn Period" contains: "If a scholar is filial, he will plow and fight." Han Feizi First Meeting Qin recorded the battle of Zhao Changping, and Qin "learned that his men were under Changping". "Mozi Ci" says: "Soldiers are not tired, and scholars are not tired, which is enough to be dissatisfied." In this paper, the literati and the people are actually a finger, both engaged in farming wars. Scholars are the majority of the residents in this country, so Xunzi Shi Zhi concluded: "People in this country live in it ... if the country loses its government, scholars will go."

The popularity of scholars and scholars' concept of Shu Ren reflects the blending of scholars and people. In social changes, a considerable number of literati have fallen into the same situation as the people, that is, the so-called "people in clothes" and "people in ordinary life."

(D) the relationship between a gentleman and knowledge and morality

Scholar-officials are the highest officials of scholars and taxis who entered the official career; Scholars are lower-class scholars, who are as confused or almost the same as the people. There is an intermediate level between the upper class and the lower class. These scholars are not as good as officials and not for the people. They take learning and advocating morality as their responsibility. Confucianism has discussed this issue the most. Lutz asked Confucius, "How can I become a scholar?" Confucius said, "Sincerely? Yiyi is like a scholar. Friends are eager? Brother Yi Yi. " [8] Confucius added: "Scholars have a long way to go to strive for self-improvement." [9] "It is not enough to think that a scholar is a scholar." [10] Zhang Zishuo: "When a scholar sees danger and death, he can understand what it means. It is enough to sacrifice respect and mourn. " [1 1] The basic provisions of these discourses on scholars can be summarized as follows: First, scholars take learning and moral cultivation as their own responsibility; Second, have lofty aspirations and ambitions; Third, to be an official is the future, and being an official means being loyal to your duties. Mencius' requirements for scholars are roughly the same as those of Confucius. The prince asked Mencius, "What can I do for you?" Mencius said, "Shangzhi." Then he said, "I am poor and disloyal, and I can't get away from it. Poverty never loses its righteousness. If you can't get out of the way, the people will not be disappointed. " [12] also said: "Only those who have perseverance but not constant production are talented." [13] Xunzi's requirements for scholars lay in observing propriety and righteousness. "Self-cultivation" said: "If you follow the good law, you will be a scholar." The law here refers to etiquette. Xunzi believes that the bounden duty of a scholar is integrity. "He is an honest man, giving up your wealth for meanness, giving up wealth for poverty, giving up his loss for work, and being black without losing his position. This is based on the endless discipline and articles in the world!" [14] Other philosophers have also closely linked scholars with morality.

Gentleman is an important concept to express a scholar's morality. Judging from the existing literature, Mozi was the first to use this concept. In Mozi, a gentleman has two meanings. First, it refers to middle and lower-level officials. For example, in Mozizhong, it said, "Today's princes and gentlemen, please try to enrich their country, educate their people and decide their country ..." Second, it refers to intellectuals. "Mozi Tianshang" contains: "The book of corporal and gentleman today is invincible and countless. It is said that the princes are above and the scholars are below, which is far from benevolence and righteousness. " In Xunzi's hands, a gentleman has completely become a title to express morality and knowledge. There is a dialogue between Confucius and his disciples in Xunzi Zidao. Lutz said: "The knower makes people know each other, and the benevolent makes people love themselves." Confucius said, "You are a scholar." Zi Gong said, "He who knows knows knows others, and the benevolent loves others." Confucius said, "A gentleman is also a gentleman." Yan Hui said: "The knower knows himself, and the benevolent loves others." Confucius said, "A gentleman is also a gentleman." A gentleman is morally superior to a gentleman, but not as good as a "gentleman of the Ming Dynasty". The Theory of Evil Nature says: "There are saints, gentlemen, villains and servants." "Cultivation" said: "A gentleman is not lazy for poverty." "History of Honor and Disgrace" said: "The righteousness lies in the courage of a gentleman who does not rely on power and interests, does not change his view of the whole country, attaches importance to death, upholds justice and is inflexible."

Generally speaking, scholars are distributed in every corner of society, from top to bottom, and they can be scholars or cloth clothes. The social status and occupation of scholars are very different, and there is unity in the differences, that is, knowledge, morality and courage. These things are intangible, but they are ubiquitous and indispensable in social activities. It is with these intangible things that scholars can wander around every corner of society.

Lisan

Zhou Li was originally named Zhou Guan, also called Zhou Guan Jing. The legend was written by Zhou Gongdan, and Kang Youwei and others in Qing Dynasty thought it was forged by Liu Xin. Mr. Guo Moruo compared the official system in the bronze inscription of the Western Zhou Dynasty with Zhou Li, and proved that Zhou Li was not a work of the Western Zhou Dynasty, but a work of the Warring States, and was written by a disciple of Superman Xun Qing. Analyzing Zhou Li's social and economic system, political system and academic thought, Mr. Yang Xiangkui also thinks it is a Confucian work in the Warring States Period. "Zhou Li" describes the positions of officials at all levels and their related laws and regulations. * * * There are six articles, such as Tianguan Zhongzai, Di Guan Situ, Chun Guan Zongbo, Xia Guan Sima, Qiu Guan Si Kou, Winter Lawsuit Empty, etc. In the Western Han Dynasty, Wang Dezhi of Hejian was short of litigation in winter, which was supplemented by Gong Ji. "Flower King Gong Ji" is about industry and commerce. The Zhou Dynasty implemented the system of "industrial and commercial food officials". Industry and commerce are under the unified management of the government, and the leaders in charge of industry and commerce are also state officials. Therefore, Kao Gong Ji was added to "Zhou Li". The book retains many precious ancient historical materials, which is helpful for the study of ancient history. Wang Mang's reform was carried out by adopting the system described in this book. Annotated versions of this book include Zheng Xuan's annotation on Zhou Li in the Eastern Han Dynasty, Jia's annotation on justice in the Tang Dynasty and Sun Zhirang's annotation on justice in the Qing Dynasty.

Ili is called "Li" for short, also called "Li Jing" or "". Some people think that this book was written by Duke Zhou, while others think that it was written by Confucius. By comparing the artifacts and systems found in today's archaeology with the funeral system contained in Yili, people think that the system in Yili is a compilation of some ritual systems in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, and the book should be written in the early to middle period of the Warring States Period. Yili *** 17 Articles: Li, Shi Hun Li, Li Jian, Xiang Jiu Li, Li, Dashe (clothing), bride gift, Dr. Li, etc. "Yili" describes in detail all kinds of main etiquette of slave owners and nobles, mainly the etiquette used by first-class nobles, so this book is also called "Yili". In ancient times, the patriarchal clan system, laws and regulations system and the hierarchical order of nobles in politics and economy were established and maintained by holding various rituals and ceremonies, so these rituals and ceremonies were the means used by slave owners and nobles to consolidate their internal organizations and standardize their behavior. After entering the feudal society, the feudal nobles reformed these etiquette systems in order to maintain the feudal patriarchal clan system and hierarchical order and consolidate absolutism. Yi Zhu by Zheng Xuan in the Eastern Han Dynasty, Li Yi Yi Shu by Jia in the Tang Dynasty and Yi Li Zhu by Hu Peihui in the Qing Dynasty.

The abbreviations of the Five Classics, Poetry, Calligraphy, Ceremony, Book of Changes, Spring and Autumn Period, were first named in the period of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty. It contains rich historical materials of ancient China, is a compulsory teaching material in feudal times, and is used by the ruling class as a theoretical basis for propagating patriarchal feudalism.

The Six Classics refers to the Six Classics, that is, in addition to the Five Classics, plus Jing Yue. Others refer to the Six Classics as "Six Arts", and all the six arts in Han Yu's Shi Shuo have spread to Xi.