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In 476 AD, the last Roman emperor was abolished by the Germans, and the Western Roman Empire finally perished under the invasion of barbarians. Many Germanic countries were established on the land of the former Western Roman Empire, and the feudal system in Western Europe developed under this background.

After the Franks entered Gaul, they confiscated the land of the Roman royal family and some slave owners and distributed it to the Franks' Kyle Commune. Many of them were also occupied by the king of Morovin dynasty and his soldiers, becoming a new feudal landlord class. As Franks continued to conquer new areas, kings presented the newly conquered land and its people to his subordinates, bishops and abbots, which was called "land donation". As a result of this unrestricted land grant, the local big noble's strength continued to increase, which ultimately greatly weakened the kingship, making successive kings of Mai Tam dynasty gradually become symbolic "* * * lords". When Charles Martel of Caroline family served as a court minister, she began to implement the fief system for the sake of the long-term stability of the Frankish country and for the sake of consolidating her own strength. Charles Martel took the confiscated land of rebel nobles and churches as fiefs and distributed it to nobles and churches. The recipient of the fief must provide cavalry service to the giver and swear allegiance to him; The giver of the fief has the obligation to protect the receiver from others. Feudal enfeoffment is limited to life and cannot be inherited.

In a sense, the feudal system in western Europe was developed by Franks during this period, and the "fief" system played a fundamental and decisive role.

The system of "fief" developed greatly during the period of Charlemagne. During this period, in addition to the old customs of the king, the earl, the earl of Mark and the duke who used to belong to state officials also became the vassals of the king and accepted the king's fiefs. At this time, fiefs gradually became hereditary. The king's bannermen can also absorb their own bannermen and give them some land as fiefs, thus becoming their bannermen again. After the 9th century, the word "fief" gradually replaced "fief"; It's called a pink map in the future. The king is the highest feudal Lord, under which there are big feudal lords such as duke, earl and bishop, and then there are small and medium feudal lords, thus forming a complete feudal hierarchy in Western Europe.

The medieval country was a loose land collection, and there was no clear concept of national boundaries. "Its property rights and sovereignty are mutually transformed everywhere" [1]

The feudal system in Europe is a system of political and economic integration. The feudal lords first clearly owned the ownership of the land in their fiefs, and then gradually acquired the local power of the kingship after the decline of the kingship, and transformed it into private power inherited with the fiefs, including administrative, judicial, taxation, coinage and other powers. Tracing the origin of European feudalism includes three main factors: Roman civilization, Germanic tradition and the influence of Christianity.

Note: ostrogoths, Visigoths and Vandals brought great pain to the Roman Empire, and in the context of migration and settlement, they brought the destruction of civilization to the Empire. Finally, they established a big country on the territory of ancient Rome. Brought centuries of chaos to western Europe.

He came from the papal state of Rome before the Renaissance.

In the early days of Christianity, the church was in an illegal state, and it was not until the reign of the Roman emperor Constantine the Great that Christianity gained legal status. It was also after this that the property of the Christian church grew rapidly due to the donation of Roman emperors and nobles. Constantine the Great presented Rutland Palace to the church, which became the first major donation received by the church. In addition to real estate, real estate and wealth donated to the church are also increasing in various provinces of Italy and the Roman Empire. However, the church occupies these lands as a private Lord and does not have the sovereignty to give them.

In the 5th century, the Western Roman Empire was invaded by barbarians, which led to its demise by ostrogoths in 476. After the demise of western Rome, its original territory fell into a state of ownerless. In this case, the Christian churches in Italy organized themselves and gradually became the de facto secular rulers in central Italy under the governance of the Bishop of Rome.

After the 6th century AD, the embryonic form of the papal state began to appear, but the Byzantine Empire under Justinian the Great launched a series of conquest activities against Italy, which destroyed the political and economic foundation of the papal state. The Lombards drove the Byzantine army out of Italy. Although the Bishop of Rome (Pope) had to submit to the Byzantine emperor in name at this time, the relative independence of the Roman church gave the Bishop of Rome the capital to compete with the Bishop of Constantinople and the Byzantine emperor. Roman Bishop Gregory II even expelled the Byzantine emperor Leo III.

In the 7th century, with the decline of the Byzantine Empire, the Roman church, as the largest landlord in Italy, once again ruled the surrounding areas of Rome, beyond the sphere of influence of Byzantium, and used military and diplomatic means (even including bribery) to resist the Lombard attacks. With the efforts of the Roman Church, Lombardi stopped going south and concentrated on attacking the Byzantine governor's jurisdiction with Lavaine as the core in the northern Apennine Peninsula. In 728, King Louis Tupland of Lombardy gave some villages and towns in Latin to the Bishop of Rome, and these lands (known as "Patrimonium Petri", that is, "the legacy of St. Peter") became the cornerstone of the papal state.

In 75 1 year, the Byzantine territory in Italy was finally lost to Lombardy. The Roman region (which has developed into a Roman principality at this time) completely cut off its ties with the Byzantine Empire. Pope Stephen II showed kindness to Pippin, the leader of the Franks, and relieved the Lombardy's threat. Stephen took a series of actions to show his kindness to Pippin, including approving the latter to depose Hildrake III, the last king of the Milovi Dynasty, and become king on his own. Stephen also made Pippin a Roman aristocrat. In return, Pepin led the army into Italy in 754. In the next two years, he pacified many places in central and northern Italy, and then dedicated it to the Pope as a dedication to the church. In 78 1 year, Pippin's son Charlemagne declared the Pope the supreme ruler of these areas.

Pippin's land includes Lavaine under the jurisdiction of the former Byzantine Governor, a part of Benevento Principality, Tuscany, Corsica, Lombardy and five cities in central Italy-Rimini, pesaro, Fano, Senigaglia and ancona.

Pippin's land expanded the territory ruled by the Pope, but it also brought a legal question: Since the territory ruled by the Pope was given by the Frankish Empire, did the Pope become a feudal vassal of the Frankish Emperor in secular politics?

In order to enhance the prestige of the papal state, and to dispel the possibility that Pippin's heirs will control the Vatican in the future, the Holy See boldly forged a document called "The Land Donation of Constantine" (Latin: Constitutum Donatio Constantini；; Constitutum Domini Constantini Imperator tried to declare that this land belonging to the papal state was presented by the Roman emperor Constantine I to the Bishop of Rome Sylvester II in the 4th century ... According to documents, Constantine the Great was baptized after Sylvester II cured his leprosy through prayer. On the fourth day after baptism, he decided to donate the imperial capital Rome to the Christian church and establish a new capital in Byzantium on the Bosphorus. The document also asserts that Constantine the Great donated not only the central part of Italy to the Bishop of Rome, but also the western half of the entire Roman Empire, and granted the power of secular rule to the Pope and his successors.

The division of the Frankish Empire solved the legal status of the papal state on the other hand. After Charlemagne's death, the empire was divided into three parts in the 9th century. In the following centuries, the French king who claimed to be the Frankish King immediate successor often claimed to be the secular protector of the Holy See, and even moved the Holy See and the Pope from Rome to avignon, but no emperor or king in Europe could claim suzerainty to the papal state as the sole heir of the Frankish Empire.

The cooperation between the Roman church and the Franks reached its peak in 800. Prior to this, like the church in Constantinople in the East, the status of the Pope and the Roman Church were subordinate (at least in name) to the sole heir of the Roman Empire, that is, the Eastern Roman Emperor. The Pope and the Archbishop of Constantinople are considered as the representatives of God's religious affairs on earth, while the Emperor of Rome (East Rome) is the representative of God's secular affairs on earth. Christian churches and people believe that there is only one emperor in the world, and that is the Roman emperor. In 797, Constantine VI was abolished, and his mother, Queen Irina, became the Queen of Rome (reigned from 797 to 802), which gave the Roman church reason to refuse to recognize the supreme authority of the ruler of Constantinople. The Roman church claimed that the name of the Roman emperor no longer existed among the Greeks (that is, the Byzantines), so the Pope, all bishops, Yuan, the Frankish elder, and all the Roman elders decided to crown the Frankish king as the emperor after consultation, so that the Roman empire could be passed down forever.

In 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as the "Great Emperor Augustus A de Corona Tu Smagghe Yunus", and the Holy Roman Empire was born (there was no name for the Holy Roman Empire at this time, and it was not called the "Roman Empire" until Conrad II. By Frederick I, in order to compete with the name of "Holy Roman Church", the Holy Roman Empire was born.

According to the Roman church, Charlemagne's coronation as Augustus and Emperor of Rome does not mean that the western Christian world is on an equal footing with the Eastern Roman Empire. In their view, the deposing of the last emperor of Western Rome in 476 did not mark the demise of the Western Roman Empire, but marked the unification of the Roman Empire, and the Eastern Roman Empire once again became a single and indivisible Roman Empire. The coronation of Charlemagne as Augustus and Emperor of Rome means that the orthodox monarchy of the Roman Empire has returned to Rome from "new Rome"-Constantinople.

However, due to the uninterrupted monarchy of the Eastern Roman Empire, the Christian world has two supreme rulers, one in Constantinople and the other in Rome. They don't coexist peacefully like the emperors of the Roman Empire in the past, but accuse each other of being intruders and claim to be the only truly legitimate leader of the Christian church and people. From this perspective, by crowning Charlemagne, Leo III liberated the Roman Church (and its territory) from the subordinate position of the Eastern Roman emperor. Since then, the Pope has become the highest religious leader in the western Christian world.

However, although the 800-year-old imperial seal of the Frankish Empire reads "the rebirth of the Roman Empire", the holy Roman emperor crowned by the Roman church is no longer the master of the Christian church like the eastern Roman emperor, and the holy Roman emperor can no longer interfere in church affairs (or even depose the Roman bishop) like the eastern Roman emperor. On the contrary, the Pope can intervene in secular affairs and government affairs by expelling the emperor's religious membership. In addition, in the land of central Italy owned by the Roman church, the Pope became an out-and-out secular king.

Since 10 century, the prestige of the papal state has declined due to a series of events. First of all, from the reign of Siqi III to the reign of John XII, several women among the Roman nobles gained the power of the Vatican by becoming the mistresses of the Pope, and their sons and sons were both made Pope (for example, John XI, the son of Siqi III, his mistress Mathea and his grandson John XII). Therefore, the period from 903 to 963 is called the "erotic" period. In the meantime, the pope's decree can only be implemented in the surrounding areas of Rome. Secondly, the papal state continued Lombardy's feudal system, and there were many feudal fiefs of earl and marquis in the papal state, almost all of which were independent lords.

By the middle of 10 century, the Germanic king Otto I had conquered the northern Italian territory. Pope John XII was crowned Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. In return, Otto issued the "Otto Diploma" (Otto Decree), promising to maintain the independence of the papal state. Nevertheless, in the next two centuries, the papal state and the holy Roman Empire still clashed from time to time. Whenever the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire wanted to exert his power in Italy, there would be conflicts with the Vatican and papal countries. The emperor's control over the Pope reached its peak during the reign of Henry III. Henry III went to Italy on 1046 and deposed Pope Gregory VI who opposed him. Clement II, a German, was elected as the new Pope and crowned Henry III. Since then, he has abolished the Pope many times. Henry III has always been in charge of the appointment and dismissal of German bishops.

1073 On April 2 1 day, Alexander II died and Gregory VII was elected Pope. The conflict between the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor continued between him and Henry IV, the heir of Henry III. 1076, Gregory VII excommunicated Henry IV, and then the famous Kanosha humiliation happened.

After the fall of Hohenstaufen dynasty, the holy Roman emperor no longer interfered with the affairs of the Vatican at will, and the papal state and the holy Roman empire entered a state of peace. By the beginning of14th century, the papal state, like other Italian countries, had become a completely independent country.

During the Renaissance, especially during the reign of Pope Alexander III and Julius II, the territory of the papal state expanded greatly again and became one of the most important political forces in Italy. However, the pope's rule over most of his territory is still nominal, and the real owner of the papal city-state is still the local princes and nobles. It was not until the16th century that the Pope was able to directly rule all regions in the name of the church.

From 1305 to 1378, the Holy See moved to avignon in southwest France, and the Pope became a political vassal of the French king. Nevertheless, Italy's papal state is still a territory under the name of the Pope, and the city of Avignon and its surrounding areas also became a part of the papal state, which was not returned to France until the French Revolution.

Strictly speaking, the papal countries in the Middle Ages and Renaissance were not a real country, but a loose combination of several feudal city-states or small countries with the Pope as the supreme Lord. Some city-states have their own subordinate lords, while others (such as Rome) do not. Generally speaking, the relationship between the Pope and these small countries is similar to that between feudal kings and free markets in other western European countries. Because there was no secular monarch to compete with it, the church became the highest authority of these city-States.

By the Renaissance, many Italian cities in Lombardy and Tuscany had become more powerful cities and countries (such as Florence, Pisa, Siena, Milan and Genoa) from their bishops and holy Roman emperors. The citizens of these countries are well-behaved and diligent craftsmen, and there is a wealthy middle class engaged in business activities on them. Manufacturing and international trade have accumulated a lot of wealth in these countries. However, in papal countries, especially Rome, there is a lack of such a wealthy middle class. Due to long-term neglect, the land in Oena, the core of the papal state where Rome is located, cannot be used and its products are barren; Rome's position is not good, which is not conducive to business; It has no industry, no goods to produce, and no citizens or middle class. Citizens are divided into three grades: the military class (including the remnants of ancient nobles); Monks; And the lower classes (mainly poor civilians). The first class is divided into several parties, with several big families as its leaders. The Pope is the leader of the latter two classes, but he is often a member of these big families. Until the14th century, the internal history of the papal state was still the struggle history of these parties and the power struggle history of the aristocratic class and the monk class. Although the Pope is the highest religious leader in the Christian region of Western Europe, he is only the head of a powerful family in Rome.

However, the remnants of the ancient Roman harmonious system still exist in the papal state. 1337, Pope Benedict XII accepted the titles of elder and general conferred by Roman citizens and consul of the Republic of China. 1347, in a bloodless revolution, Cora di Rienzo, a papal notary, was appointed as the tribune of Rome, and he made some reforms to curb the excesses of the nobles.

By the end of 18, the territory under the name of the Pope reached its peak. These lands include Latium (today's Lazio district), umbria, Ma Erkai, Lavaine, Ferrara, Bologna in the north and Romagne. In the south, the Pope owns two enclaves in the kingdom of Naples, namely benevento and Pontkovo. In France, the Pope owns the city of avignon and the territory east of the Rhone River (Comtat Venaissin).

The French Revolution brought great losses to the Vatican. 179 1 year, the Pope's territory in France was annexed by France. 1796, the French army invaded Italy, and the northern territory of the papal state was also annexed by France and became a part of the Inner Alps. 1798, the French army marched into the hinterland of the papal state, captured the city of Rome and established the Roman Republic. Pope pope pius vi was captured and exiled to France.

1800, the anti-French alliance reached a peace agreement with France, and the second anti-French alliance was dissolved. After that, France restored the papal state, and Pope pope pius vii returned to Rome. However, in 1808, the French army attacked the papal state again and completely destroyed it. The western half of Rome and the papal state were merged into France, and the eastern half was merged into the Italian kingdom with Napoleon as the king.

18 15 Vienna conference to rebuild the papal state. Since then, successive popes have carried out a series of conservative reactionary policies in papal countries. Until the pius ix period, due to the influence of 1848 European revolution, the papal countries began to carry out some liberalization reforms.

The Napoleonic Wars marked the rise of nationalism in modern Europe, and the national consciousness of Italy, Germany and other nationalities was awakened, and the voice of Italians demanding national reunification was growing. However, after the Vienna Conference, Italy resumed its former fragmented situation, and Lombardy and Venice in the north were ruled by Austria.

From 65438 to 0848, the liberal revolution broke out in Europe, first launched in Sicily, Italy, which affected almost all of Europe except Russia, Spain and a few Nordic countries. 1848165438+1October 15 pellegrino rossi, the minister of justice of the papal state, was assassinated, and Roman citizens took to the streets the next day, demanding that the papal state carry out social reforms, designate a democratic government and declare war on Austria. 165438+1On the evening of October 24th, Pope pius ix fled Rome disguised as an ordinary priest and took refuge in two Sicilian kingdoms. Carlo manuel Muzzarelli, Bishop of the Holy See, formed the remaining government and then promulgated some new liberalization laws, so the Pope refused to recognize the government and formed a new government in exile.

In order to welcome the Pope back to Rome, the mayor of Rome formed a delegation to the Geta Castle, the Pope's refuge, but the Pope refused to return to Rome. For the first time, there was no government in Rome, so citizens held their first free elections in June 1849 and June 65438+1October 2 1 to form a constitutional assembly, and all men aged 2 1 can vote. On February 8, the Constituent Assembly announced the establishment of the Roman Republic, with a three-member management committee as the head of state, and the Pope only retained the position of religious leader. The Constitution of the Roman Republic declares religious freedom, gives Jews equal status, abolishes the death penalty, abolishes heavy taxes and creates new employment opportunities. Italian patriot and soldier Giuseppe Garibaldi organized a volunteer army called "Italian Legion", which became the armed forces of Rome. The Pope appealed to Catholic countries for help, and French President louis bonaparte joined forces with Austria to intervene. On June 29th, the French army entered Rome.

After that, the French-Austrian army continued to pursue the garibaldi Legion, forcing garibaldi to take refuge in San Marino and disbanding its army. Pius ix returned to Rome in April 1850. French troops were stationed in Rome to protect the Pope.

After this campaign, Italian nationalists-including monarchists centered on Sardinia and Sava, and many pacifists-regarded the papal state as a stumbling block to revival. The French emperor Charles Louis Napolé on Bonaparte used the papal state as a bargaining chip to interfere in Italian affairs. On the one hand, he supported Sardinia to unify Italy, on the other hand, he continued to support and protect the papal state power.

1859 After the Second Italian War of Independence, Sardinia recovered Lombardy from Austria, while garibaldi launched a revolution in two Sicilian kingdoms and overthrew the Bourbon monarchs. Garibaldi tried to establish a republic in southern Italy, but Sardinia asked the French to send troops to bring southern Italy into its territory. With the permission of France, Sardinian troops went south in 1860, and with the cooperation of local residents, they first conquered two-thirds of the eastern part of the papal kingdom, and then entered two Sicilian kingdoms. At the end of that year, these conquered territories were formally annexed by the Kingdom of Sardinia, and the unified Kingdom of Italy was formally born. At this time, only one third of the territory of the papal countries centered on Rome and Lazio remained. 186 1 March, the Kingdom of Italy declared Rome as the new capital. However, due to the French army, Italy could not recover Rome.

1870 When the Franco-Prussian War broke out, the French troops stationed in Rome withdrew to China. King Vittorio Emanuele II of Italy no longer has to worry about the French threat, and the time has come to bring the papal state into the territory of Italy. He first sent a secret message to Pope pius ix and proposed a solution to save the Vatican's face: the Italian army entered Rome peacefully in the name of "protecting the Pope". But this proposal was rejected by the Pope, so Italy declared war on the papal state on September 1870. On September 1 1, the Italian army crossed the border and slowly advanced towards Rome. Travel is slow, waiting for the possibility of diplomatic coordination.

Although the papal state had only a few troops, pius ix ordered resistance, which led to the legal fact that the papal state was conquered by Italian military invasion, not by peaceful takeover. On September 19, Italian troops surrounded Rome. 1On September 20th, 870, after three hours of shelling, the Italian army broke a gap in the wall of Oliu in Rome, and then entered Rome, where a grand ceremony was held on the Avenue Apia, and the papal state perished.

Since then, after a referendum, Rome and Lazio merged into Italy, and the capital of the Kingdom of Italy moved from Florence to Rome. 49 Italian soldiers and 19 papal soldiers were killed in this battle.

Before the capture of Rome, as one of the conditions of the peace talks, the Italian Kingdom proposed to leave the western half of Rome within the "Leo Wall" in Hexi to the Pope, and promised that the Vatican could establish a completely independent sovereign state in this city, but this proposal was rejected by pius ix.

After Rome was annexed by Italy, the properties, palaces and manors of the Holy See in Rome and all parts of Italy were confiscated, and even the official palace of the Pope, the Quirinal Palace, was confiscated and became the palace of Italy. Pius ix retreated to the Vatican Castle and declared himself a "prisoner of the Vatican" to show his protest against Italy's forcible annexation of the papal state. During his imprisonment by the Vatican, the Pope confined himself to the Vatican castle, and his activities only reached the entrance of St. Peter's Cathedral Square as far as possible. The Pope no longer visits his main church, St. John's Rutland Church on the other side of Rome, and palaces outside Rome.

Since the papal state is an independent sovereign state in history, diplomatic envoys have been stationed in many countries and are recognized as one country. Garibaldi and other Italian * * * activists suggested marching into Vatican City to completely eliminate the secular power of the Pope, but this proposal was not accepted by the conservative nationalists dominated by Italy, and the Vatican City continued to maintain its independence. Italy could not completely ignore this fact. After pius ix, successive popes were hostile to the new Italian kingdom, and even forbade believers to hold public office in the Italian kingdom.

The so-called "Brahma Prison" period lasted from 1870 to 1929. At this time, it has been 69 years since the revival and 59 years since the demise of the papal state. The long-term hostility and resistance of the Vatican to Italy has become out of place. In February 1929, 1 1, representatives of Pope Pope Pius XI and the Italian Kingdom signed the final agreement "Rutland Treaty" in Rome to solve the outstanding cases between the two sides.

According to the Rutland Treaty, the Vatican finally recognized the unification of Italy, and Rome became the capital of Italy. The Kingdom of Italy recognized the Pope's supreme authority and secular ruling power in the Vatican Castle, and the Vatican Castle became an independent Vatican city-state. In addition, the treaty also stipulated the political status of Catholicism and the Church in Italy, and the Kingdom of Italy made final compensation for the church property confiscated in the Risojimanto War. Legally speaking, the papal state, which lasted for 1 1 century, officially perished on1February 9291/and was replaced by the Vatican city-state.