Brief introduction of Zenobia

Zenobia (24 CE BC, the date of death is unknown) was the second half of Queen Palmyrene's empire who challenged the authority of Rome. In Roman history, it was called crisis of the third century (235-284 CE), which was allowed to split out through constant civil defined wars, thus forming a * * *.

Historians have noticed that this crisis was caused by widespread social unrest, economic instability and, most importantly, the disintegration of the empire, which was divided into three independent regions: the Gaul Empire, the Roman Empire and the Balmiller Empire. The chaos in the central government made any attempt to control the peripheral areas regarded as secondary, so for a time, the empire was divided into three different political entities, including Zenobia.

Contrary to popular claims, Zenobia never led an uprising against Rome, probably never locked in the streets of Rome, and almost certainly not executed by Emperor Aurelian (reigned in 27-275). The ancient materials about her life and rule include the historian Zosims (AD 49), the historian Augusta (about 4th century AD), the historian Zonaras (12th century AD) and the historian Altabari (AD 839-923) CE), whose records follow the records of Adi Ibn Zaid (6th century AD), although the Talmud and

Although all these sources believe that Queen Zenobia of Baal Milla challenged the authority of Rome, none of them described her behavior as a total rebellion. Of course, this view of her rule depends on people's definition of "rebellion" Although she was careful not to have a direct military conflict with Rome, it is obvious that she ignored the authority of Rome more and more in the process of establishing herself as the legitimate monarch of the East.

Zenobia signed a trade agreement without consulting Rome or even considering its interests, and added territory to her empire.

Early life and marriage

Zenobia was born in palmira around 24 AD, and was named Julia Aurelia Zenobia. Syria was a province of Rome at this time, and it has been since it was annexed in 115/116. Zenobia is a Roman citizen, because her father's family acquired this status earlier, probably during the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161-18 AD). Augusta claimed that her father could trace his lineage to the famous Julius Domna (lost to 17-217 CE) of the Severen dynasty in Rome.

Zenobia was educated in Greek and Latin. Although he may have their difficulties, he was proficient in Egyptian and Aramaic. From the legendary ancestors, he claimed Carthage and Cleopatra VII's Egypt. According to the * * version of the story told by Al-Tabari, she was assigned to manage her family's sheep and shepherds when she was young, so she gradually got used to ruling men.

Al-Tabari also claimed that this was the time when she became proficient in riding and learned her endurance and endurance, which she later became famous for. According to records, she will take her troops on an expedition on foot, can hunt like anyone, and can drink anyone. Edward Gibbon, a historian, described the Queen in a passage in his famous book:

Zenobia is perhaps the only woman who broke through the servile laziness imposed on her by the Asian climate and etiquette with her outstanding talent. She claimed that she was a descendant of the King of Macedonia in Egypt, not inferior to her ancestor Cleopatra in beauty, but far superior to the princess in chastity and bravery. Zenobia is regarded as the loveliest and bravest of her sex. She has a dark complexion. Her teeth are as white as pearls, and her big black eyes sparkle with unusual fire, with the most attractive sweetness. Her voice is powerful and harmonious. Through study, her masculinity has been strengthened and decorated. She is not ignorant of Latin, but proficient in Greek, Syrian and Egyptian. She drew up a miniature of oriental history for herself, and compared the beauty of Homer and Plato under the guidance of the lofty Longinus. (128-129)

The reason why this passage is introduced in detail here is that, firstly, it is mainly taken from the description of Zenobia in the History of Augusta, and secondly, because Gibbon's works will have a great influence on how to understand Queen Milla in the future. In these two books, she is described as a woman with outstanding ability, which is also the evaluation of ancient readers and future generations.

Even in * * * literature, she is not so heroic but more indulgent, and she is described as a famous queen. In addition to other virtues repeated in ancient literature, her chastity is always mentioned in particular. She believes that sex can only be for the purpose of bearing children, and refuses to sleep with her husband after marriage unless it is for bearing children.

by the year 258, Zenobia had married Lucius Sepp Tiems Odentus, the governor of Rome and Syria, with whom she had at least one son, Vabalatus. She is the second wife of Odaenthus, and he has a son and heir, Herodes, from his first marriage. Odaenthus ruled a very prosperous region, especially Baal Milla, which was an important trade center on the Silk Road between the East and the West. Businessmen travelling to and from Rome have to stop in Milla to pay taxes and just rest.

However, since around 227 AD, the Persians of Sassanian dynasty stopped trading from time to time, and they regularly blocked this route to pay tribute accurately. Silk was one of the most popular commodities in Rome before Augustus (reigned from 27 BC to 14 AD), and the Romans were not satisfied with these trade interruptions. King Shapur I of Sassanian Dynasty (reigned in 24-27/272 AD) occupied Antioch, one of the most important trade centers in Rome, which was intolerable.

in 26 ad, the Roman emperor valerian (reigned in 253-26 ad) marched into Sassanian dynasty, and was defeated and captured by them. It is alleged that he was then used by Shapur I as a footstool to ride horses until he died in captivity, and then stuffed and exhibited. His son Gaglini uz was unable to save the situation, so Odentus marched on the Sassanians, defeated them and drove them back to the Euphrates River, far from Syria. Although Odantus claimed that he was trying to save Valerian for the benefit of Rome, he actually had another motive: he tried to form an alliance with Shapur I and was rejected before becoming his enemy.

Because of his service to Rome, Odentus was appointed as the governor of the whole eastern Roman Empire. In 261 AD, when the usurper Que Etus challenged the rule of Gaglini Uus, Odentus defeated and killed him. Since then, he has enough power and prestige to effectively rule his territory, almost independent of Rome. In 266/267 AD, he and his son Girod were assassinated by his nephew after an argument after a hunting trip. Although some sources claimed, or at least implied, that Zenobia murdered him so that her son could become king, most later writers and historians rejected this.

Rise and conquer Egypt

Nuo Ze Biya later became Regent, because Vabalatus was underage. She was in court with intellectuals and philosophers, including Platonist Gaius Cassius Longinus Long Girnus (L. 213-273 CE), and was later accused of encouraging her to break with Rome. So far, the relationship between Barr Milla and Rome has been friendly, because Odentus' military action is beneficial to Rome and himself.

after Zenobia took office, she maintained the policy of her late husband. In the Roman chaos characterized by the crisis in the 3rd century, 26 emperors came and went as emperors. Did Odaenthus ever think that he could prove himself to be the next Gallienus hotel and accumulate his wealth through plunder in Sassanian, a city? After his death, Zenobia may think that her son, even herself, can rule Rome and continue her husband's rule. Historian Richard Stoneman wrote:

In the five years after Odaenthus died in 267 AD, Zenobia established herself as an oriental mistress in the eyes of her people. Living in a palace is just one of the many glories of one of the most magnificent cities in the East. It is surrounded by the courts of philosophers and writers, served by elderly eunuchs, and dressed in the best silk brocade that Antioch or Damascus can provide. She inherits the reputation of military success and the reality of efficient Bedouin soldiers. With great strength and influence, she started one of the most remarkable challenges to Rome, even in that turbulent century. Rome, now tortured by barbarian invasion from the north, has no strongman to protect it in the east ... Syria has temporarily lost its mind. (155)

Gallienus was assassinated in 268 ad and succeeded by claudius ii, who later died of fever and was succeeded by Quintillus in 27 ad. During this period, Zenobia's policy changed steadily. In 269 AD, seeing that Rome was busy with its own problems and didn't notice her, she sent her general Zabudas to lead the army into Rome and claimed it was her own.

however, even at this point, she was careful to avoid conflict with Rome. A Syrian-Egyptian named Timanez launched a rebellion against Roman rule during the absence of the governor of Rome, and Zenobia's March into Egypt can be interpreted as a battle in favor of Rome. However, Timagenes seems to be the instigator sent by Zenobia to provide an excuse for the invasion. The Syrians succeeded at first, but were later driven out of Egypt by the returning Roman army. The Romans were not satisfied with simply driving the invaders out of Egypt, but pursued the Syrians across the border and into Syria, and then the Syrians fought back and destroyed the Roman army.

Once she owned Egypt, she conducted diplomatic negotiations with the Levant and Asia Minor and joined them in her growing empire. As Rome is in turmoil, the rising and wealthy Balmiller Empire will be an attractive choice for local rulers in these areas, while Rome is still busy with internal disputes and cannot take any measures against Zenobia's expanding empire. Although it is obvious that she is building her own empire against Rome, she has not taken any measures to ensure an open conflict with the empire.

At this time, Aurelian was the emperor, and Zenobia minted coins, with the image of Vabaratus on one side and Aurelian on the other, as the joint ruler of Egypt. She engraved the honorary inscription of Aurelian in palmira and included his name in the official letter. At the same time, however, she adopted the title of Augustus for Vabalatus and Augusta for herself, which were only the privileges of the Roman royal family. She also signed trade agreements, negotiated with Sassanian Persians, and added territory to her empire without consulting Rome or even considering its interests. By the year 271, she ruled an empire, which extended from modern Iraq through Turkey to Egypt.

Zenobia and Aurelian

Although other emperors didn't notice what Zenobia was doing or had no resources to do anything at all, Aurelian was a very different ruler. He was promoted from infantry to general, and now he is promoted to emperor, first as a soldier and then as a politician. When he took office, he had to fight against the Vandals, Alemanni and Goths, but by 272 AD, he was going to recover the eastern provinces from Zenobia. He didn't send a letter from an envoy asking for an explanation, and he didn't wait for Zenobia to do it himself; He led the whole army into the Balmiller Empire.

When he entered Asia Minor, he destroyed all the towns and cities loyal to Zenobia, and repelled all kinds of robber attacks in the March until he reached Taiana, the hometown of Apollonius, a famous philosopher admired by Orellan. In his dream, Apollonius came to Aurelian and advised him to be kind if he wanted to win, so Aurelian spared the city and moved on. Compassion proved to be a very wise policy, because other cities realized that they had better surrender to the benevolent emperor instead of provoking his anger because of resistance. After Tyana, no city opposed him and declared their loyalty to Aurelian before he reached their gate, so he soon arrived in Syria.

before this, it is unknown whether Zenobia tried to get in touch with Aurelian. It is reported that there was a letter between them after he arrived in Milla, but it was considered as a later invention. The letter he wrote to her at the beginning of the campaign asking her to surrender and the arrogant response she gave in The History of Augusta were also considered as fabrications to highlight O 'Orellan's kind and reasonable attitude towards the conflict, in sharp contrast to Zenobia's arrogant response.

In 272 BC, when Aurelian marched, Zenobia assembled her army, and the two armies met outside Daphne, in the battle of Imai. Aurelian pretended to retreat, then swung in a pincer formation when Palmuller's troops were tired from the pursuit, thus winning the battle. The Palimians were defeated and then slaughtered. Zenobia herself and her general Zabudas fled to the city of Mesa, where she had more people and stored them in her treasury.

When she regrouped and reorganized her troops, Aurelian chased her, and the troops met again in the battle outside Aimesa, where the Romans won again, using exactly the same tactics as they used in Aimee. They pretended to retreat in front of the chasing cavalry in Balmy, and then turned to attack them from an auspicious position. Balmy's army was destroyed, and Aurelian occupied the city. Presumably, he plundered the national treasury. However, Zenobia escaped again.

She went to Baal Milla, where she prepared to defend the city. Aurelian followed closely and besieged the city. Edward Gibbon, a historian, wrote: "She retired within the walls of the capital, made all preparations for fierce resistance, and bravely declared that the last moment of her rule should be the same as her life" (131). It is unknown whether she announced something similar, but it seems obvious that she wanted reinforcements and assistance from Persians. When it failed to arrive, she fled palmira with her son on a camel and tried to reach safe Persia.

Aurelian entered Baal Milla and found her missing. He sent cavalry to arrest her. She was trying to cross Euphrates.