Ten inventions and discoveries of Mozi

Joseph Needham of Britain in Western Europe and Gao Benhan of Sweden in Northern Europe are two of the most famous sinologists in the world. Gao's masterpiece "Science and Civilization in China" received two doctorates in Neo-Confucianism and Philosophy. His long-term research and development of China's academics is rare because of his high literacy and wide knowledge. As for his book, it is extensive and all-encompassing, mobilizing people from all over the world and bringing together experts from all over the world. So, did the author reread this book and write it for it? Behind the book? Work.

The achievements of the Chinese nation are far ahead of other nations. China already has active scientific and technological capabilities, leaving a wealth of leading inventions, such as medical fitness methods; Voyager gimbal and automatic circular motion instrument for navigation; The second automatic mechanical clock used in astronomical telescope has always been regarded as the latest product in Europe, but it was actually invented by China people in the second century A.D. ..

Actually speaking, from 1 to13rd century (even to18th century), China's scientific and technological inventions were continuously exported to Europe and other regions. Generally speaking, there are dozens, but only a few have been imported from Europe, especially in mathematics. China has been ahead of the world for more than 1000 years.

Li's achievements in science and technology in China are admirable.

Mozi has made great contributions to China's science and technology (more than 30 years ago, he wrote Mozi's View on Science, trying to analyze it from three aspects: scientific theory, scientific technology and scientific spirit). Although it is difficult to have a comprehensive view of his works and lack a clear and systematic theory, it covers a wide range of fields and has created many things: for example, (1) Today? Atomic theory? Amazing pioneer theory; (2) In China Thought? Quantity? The discovery of; (3) In astronomy, the retrograde motion of the sun and the moon relative to the positions of stars; (4) Mathematics? Zero? This discovery, and? Bit value? Concept; (5) Theoretically, the cosmological creation theory of waves and particles; (6) In metrology, he is the ancestor of Atwood machinery and the prophet of carriage and ladder structure; (7) Dynamically? Ballistic? With what? Kite? Knowledge of development; (8) Advanced view of optical kaleidoscope and photographic principle; (9) Acoustics, the invention of geophone; (10) More than a dozen inventions and discoveries in mechanical engineering, such as the manufacture of piston bellows and crossbows. Give a few examples, and it's amazing!

What's more, Li tasted such a sentence: a scientist should stand on the humanitarian standpoint and combine the regions and processes of human beings in the world? So he is also very concerned about the humanities and social sciences. Therefore, Li and Mozi are both saints when they care about the world.

The research on the history of Chinese science has not been paid attention to by Chinese and foreign academic circles. Abroad, European-centered historians completely obliterate China's previous contributions to science, scientific thought and technology. Even successful sinologists are mostly engaged in archaeology, art, phonology, philosophy, literature, history and geography, while few people pay attention to the discussion of China's scientific and technological knowledge. In China, the science of the history of science is also neglected, and there is little planning and arrangement of scientific literature, and little systematic research and development. Not only do westerners not know that China produced science, but even people in China admit it? China has never produced any science or technology? . The west has made many technological inventions from China, but they often don't know where these inventions came from.

Fortunately, Li's book Science and Civilization in China was revised to make up for this deficiency. This book is not only in content and materials, but also in writing attitude. It can be said that it is an authoritative masterpiece on the study of ancient history of science in China.

So I reread this book and wrote for it after writing Mozi's view of science for more than 30 years? Behind the book? Work. Of course, the theme of the 6th Mozi International Symposium is also the main factor of my investment. According to bacon, three great inventions in Europe were transplanted from China? Printing, black powder and compass. This is well known.

Chen Lifu is more prescient:? In the history of human civilization, the two most important scientific inventions of materials came from China. One is the most constructive, such as papermaking and printing. Without this, human wisdom cannot be recorded and passed down. What is civilization? The second kind is the most destructive: black powder. Without it, natural obstacles cannot be destroyed. The guarantee of civilization is uncertain. It is these two who prove the greatness of our nation's contribution to mankind. ? In fact, China has numerous leading inventions, especially in food and medicine. According to Needham's statistics, Chinese medicine has always been ahead of the world, and it gradually declined at the end of19th century.

Li further pointed out that from the 1 century to the18th century, China had produced a wealth of inventions and spread them to Europe and other regions. And calculated that China imported at least 26 kinds of machines and technologies from the west, while the west imported only four kinds of machines and technologies from China. For details, please refer to the following two tables:

Mozi's contribution to China's science and technology is enormous, although it is difficult to get a glimpse of his whole book because of its fragmentary chapters. Some people say that there is no clear system, but it has a wide range of fields and created a lot of things. This is a fact. Generally speaking, there are about a dozen inventions and discoveries, which are described below:

First, today? Atomic theory? A great pioneer.

Why did I let it go? Atomic theory? Independence is neither entirely due to mathematics nor entirely due to physics, mainly because of both? Math? Yes, again? Physics? Yes

There is no lack of theoretical geometry in China's mathematics. Theoretical geometry failed to flourish in China, and the real gene lies in the characteristics of China culture. Many propositions contained in Mohist Scripture have not been well understood by experts in the history of mathematics for various reasons, which is deeply regrettable.

Lee deeply lamented China's mathematics, and pointed out that Geometry of Mohist Classics must have been compiled around 370 BC? Point? The definition of the said scripture:? End (that is, point), the disorder of the body and the front. ? It says:? If the body has an end point, the end point is different. ?

Does this mean something like? Geometric originality? The first and third definitions in the volume are identical. Also quoted under the Mohist Scripture:? If it is not half a fortune, it will not move, in the end. ? After saying:? Non-promotion, enterprising. Before, there was nothing in it, and in the end it was. Take it before and after, and you will be in the middle. Gold must be half, not half, not half. ? Think of Mohism like this? Can't divide? The concept of is well-founded. And said:

According to luria's research, the ancient Greek atomists may have a parallel theory about infinitesimal. Obviously, there are also mathematicians associated with the Democritus School? Geometric atoms? Concept.

The last two propositions about geometry? Atom, is to define a? Point? Just cut a line so short that you can't cut it any more.

He thinks there is no real reason. I believe it can explain why. Small? The concept of (no longer cutting) should not be produced independently in each of these three civilizations. (A volume of 294 pages)

This is one of the reasons why I let it be independent, and the other is? It? Belong again? Physics? Relationship, this part, let in? Cosmic creationism? In more detail.

Second, in scientific thinking? Quantity? The discovery of

Just? Math? By the way, China Math, never left? Quantity? The size of, as well as the special axioms and postulates as the basis of reasoning, to establish theoretical geometry.

What is the basis? Geometric originality? Preface to? Geometry? This word, by? Quantity? Word (order of magnitude) free translation. No? Because? Transliteration of.

Just? Physics? Say, Quantity? These factors are extremely important in Mohist theory, which can be seen from their achievements in physics.

Mohism put forward two propositions in this respect: (1) Different categories cannot be compared and cannot be added or subtracted. As the saying goes:? Heterogeneity is not equality, but quantity. ? (After a brief explanation) What is this? Physics? Going? Quantity? The law.

(2) Is it five elements? Are gold, water, earth, wood and fire equal, mainly? Quantity? .

With the spread of classics:? The five elements may not win, but they are appropriate. ? (Note: What is appropriate here is what we said? Quantity? . )

After saying:? Five, gold, water, earth, wood, fire. Where there is no fire, there is a lot of fire. There is more gold than charcoal. The Golden Mansion is full of water (but not raw water). Fire leaves wood (but not from it). If you know about elk and fish, you will only benefit. ? It means:? Fire can win gold? Or? Gold can overcome fire. The main reason is to look? Quantity? To determine the size of the contract.

3. In astronomy, the retrogression of the sun and the moon to the position of stars.

In Wang Chong's On the Balance (A.D. 83), there is an interesting retrogression of the sun and the moon about the position of the constant star (Ge Hong Bao Puzi once quoted it). Mozi seems to have said this long ago (see Mozi Volume 35, Mei Yibao's works).

What are the propositions about this subject in Mohist Scripture, such as the movement of words? Menstruation? There is a cloud:

? Yujin didn't kiss, saying it was an application. ? After saying:? Don't generalize. Advance, apply near first, then apply far. ?

During the speech campaign, its? Menstruation? There is a cloud:

? The lines have been followed for a long time, and they are also continuous. ? After saying:? A walker must be near first and then far. The distance is long, and the people are long. ?

Movement, its classic cloud:

? Also (vertically) move or follow. ? It says:? Those who stay away from the sacrifice will be exempted from using the axe. ?

Is this article really trying to discuss? Round? Traces of movement.

If these celestial bodies move above strong winds, the ball may also move. Many people in ancient China thought so. But they don't think so? Spin? , but? Wandering? Advance and retreat. Is this that? There are four trips in this land? Go ahead. Its general idea is as described in the above-mentioned Mohist Scripture. This must be a rather old proverb.

Fourth, in mathematics? Zero? This discovery, and? Bit value? concept

? Zero? The discovery is one of the major events in the history of mathematics.

If the number in a unit does not exist, leave a place to represent it? That is, zero or o, which is a natural disposal, was completed in the 4th century BC. On Mohist Scripture? Ye Yi Ku. ? It says:? The points (i.e. 0 or o) of the library and area are normal. ? Words, enough to prove.

? Bit value? This concept was first discovered.

To understand the decimal method? Bit value? To be on the safe side, I'm afraid the earliest books we can quote will be pushed back to 330 BC? Mohist scripture? A proposition in "decimal method"

Xia Jing:? One is less than two, but more than five, and it is said that it is under construction. ?

Build, build a place. If the number is decimal, then the number is ten, then one, so it is greater than five.

"Jing Shuo Xia": Five is one, one is five and ten is two. ?

One fifth, one second, three, four. One has five, one tenth, that is, ten has two fives.

According to the original code quoted above and the evidence presented in Chapter 2 of this book, do you know? Bit value? In China, even if it is temporarily forgotten or not often expanded, it is more important to recognize it. Sun Tzu calculates classics? It was more than 500 years before it was discovered 2.

5. In physics, what about waves and particles? Cosmic creationism?

Wave and particle (or wave and particle).

China's physics thought depends on it? Wave? Ideas, not atomic theory. This is one of the great debates between two schools that advocate continuity and discontinuity in the history of human thought.

Mohism is the most logical at this point. Mohist geometry? Point? As the definition of its atom. Are you online? Mohist scripture? Medium, use? End? Word, indicating this meaning. However, you seem to think again? Instantaneous time , also? The meaning of atoms. For example:

Classic:? At first, at that time. ?

The meaning of the beginning is the instant time.

On classics:? It may or may not take a long time to start. ?

Sometimes the time is long, sometimes it is not long, because the starting point of time is not long.

Therefore, the atomic moment was not introduced to China by Buddhism. This paragraph, is there? Cosmic creationism? Background.

Because what is it here? Instantly? Start, like the end of this line? Point? . But is it? Physics? Yes, isn't it? Math? Yes

6. Li Du Street is the ancestor of Atwood machinery and the prophet of the structure of wagons and ladders.

? Mohist scripture? Another group, give us more Mohists (about Aristotle's time, at the end of the 4th century BC)? Force? And then what? Heavy? The idea. We emphasize once again that it is difficult to evaluate the real situation of the Ming Dynasty in the Warring States period only with the existing fragments and tampered versions without speculation.

What does it talk about in this regard? Force? And then what? Heavy? For example:

Classic:? Force and punishment (isomorphism) also stimulate. ?

On classics:? Force is the most important and heavy. ?

Also talked about it? Force? Think about balance, pulley and balance. For example:

Xia Jing:? Floccules and branches are very fine. ?

Jing Shuo Xia: Flocculation is powerful, but it is also weak. What is wrong is that it stops at application. ?

In the latter case, suppose that when the experiment starts, the weight of the changed object is higher than the constant weight hanging on the other side.

This is the ancestor of Atwood Machinery (1780), which studied the relationship between force, acceleration and mass. (See Wu Nanxun, page 92 and below). For example:? A combination of power? ：

Xia Jing:? I don't doubt whether there is unification or whether there is an answer, but I refuse. ? When we're done, I'm gone.

Due to the brevity of this proposition and the omission of notes (classic). It's hard to determine what this means, if? Instantly? If the word is good, is Mohism an attempt? Vector force? (vector of forces) analysis, and the factory of force? Plane quadrilateral? And so on, whether there is a reaction depends on whether the thinking structure is balanced. Say it again:

There are still many opportunities to gain experience and knowledge about resultant force in practical projects in ancient and medieval China. In fact, it was not until Europe17th century that these things were fully understood. And China's early gas dynamics invented it? Kite? , is the application of this principle.

? Four-wheeler? In ancient times (Mozi)? Pull the car? Or? Yoke? (chariot yoke)

How to transport heavy objects in ancient China? The principle of a four-wheeled vehicle is a good example of the component of force.

In the current aircraft inspection, we can see a branch combination system like this. This is based on attachments in many places, and the characteristics of a wing under different strains can be recorded only by one measurement.

Besides, what else? Automatic car? And then what? Large vehicles? Manufacturing industry.

In the former, it is rumored that Mo Zhai made this kind of automatic car for his mother in the 4th century BC. ? To our surprise, around A.D.115, a serious Muslim writer found that the invention of automatic cars should be attributed to China people.

The latter made special large-scale vehicles and loaded wheel castles to attack the city, which can be traced back to the article "Mozi Disciples on Building Cities" (volume 8, page 442).

? Ladder? , said in ancient times? By car? . I also tasted it in the Mohist Scripture:

Xia Jing:? Hanging? (Yu Wei). ?

"Jing Shuo Xia": Two wheels are high, two wheels are straight, and the car ladder is also. This is a ladder, weighing front end, string front end, carrying strings, hanging in front. ?

This is the practical application of the pulley and weighing hammer mentioned above.

Of course, what is the common name of this machine? Ladder? . Mozi's "preparing the ladder" cloud:? The man who climbs the ladder is heavy. ? If so, the attack of the ladder will fail. ? Mohism knows the structure and performance of the ladder like the back of his hand, so it is necessary to formulate its defensive measures to deal with it, which means that the attack of the ladder will fail.

7. Dynamic? Ballistic? With what? Kite? Knowledge of development

? Mohist scripture? Talk about it? Ballistic? Force and motion. For example:

Classic:? It has been stopped for a long time. ?

On classics:? Stop, no time passes, when the cow is not a horse, if the husband crosses the fence. ?

And mentioned it? Oblique angle Why? What else? Is the balance of the sphere unstable? Wait a minute.

News? Mohist scripture? Exercise is because there is no resistance. Mohist nouns? Dragon? (Column) should be interpreted as Newton's first law. The so-called force that can change the permanent dynamics of a moving object. Say it again:

This clearly points out that without this force, the movement will never stop. The author seems to want to say? Non-linear motion or tilting motion. Is it technically one? Not all sports. Sports? .

The information left by these short fragments is so strange that we can believe that if more Mohist physicists stay, we should be able to get some information about it. Ballistic? Discussion, the role of gravity and so on.

Li once said with regret: Due to the snooping of Mohist and Ming Che, there was no record of discussion about forced or free fall in the history of China in 2000, which seemed almost inconceivable.

? Kite? About flying kites or wooden kites, some of Mozi's books (Mo Qing Press: Luwen) may have been collected in the 4th century BC, involving Mozi's comments on flying kites. The loser thought it was good to cut bamboo and wood, and flew away after three days. Selfishness is smart for public losers. Zi Mozi said that if a man loses his son, he will behave well in the past, so it is better for Zhai Zhi to take charge of the car. In a blink of an eye, it is three inches of wood, but it weighs fifty stones (one stone in the Warring States period is equivalent to 120 Jin). Therefore, the so-called cleverness is conducive to people's cleverness and is not conducive to people's clumsiness. ?

To tell the truth, it was not until Europe17th century that the experience and knowledge about resultant force were fully understood. But it was invented by China's early aerodynamics? Kite? , is the application of this principle.

When Song was trapped, the bus used manned kites to fly over the city, perhaps to facilitate reconnaissance or to give crossbowmen a better position. ?

The use of kites in China's military affairs was a long time ago. What is even more surprising is the use of manned kites.

Eight, visually? Kaleidoscope? Advanced views and photographic principles

China studied optics earlier than any Greek we know. In China's literature, it is easy to find traces of thinking and experiments about optics. But only Mohism really picked up the mirror and the light source to observe the result carefully.

How is this expressed in the Mohist Scripture? The shadow has been moving for a long time? ; ? Are light sources and objects fixed? ; ? Light is straight? ; ? Refraction phenomenon? ; ? Light is an idea issued by an object? . Has aroused the love of young and old? Kaleidoscope? .

As for it? Photography? Principle, Mohism in the fourth century BC, namely? Pinhole? And then what? Photographic box? , extremely important. Because later physicists usually count this discovery in a very late period (165438+early 20th century). In other words, Mohism is right? Photography? , is the earliest inventor. There are many examples What are the optical principles used in photography today? ∶

Xia Jing:? The scene has arrived, and there is an end and a long scene in the afternoon, which is said to be at the end. ?

"Jing Shuo Xia": scenery, if people with light shine. The people below are also tall, and the people above are not tall, so the scenery is above: the first one has a mask, so the scenery is below, and there is light in the distance, so the scenery is also in the library. ? Talk? The principle of convex lens imaging? ：

Xia Jing:? Prison team, the scene is right in one day, and it is said to be right. ?

"The mirror says chivalrous man": Like a mirror, the mirror is close and the scenery is big. It's far away, the mirror is small, and the scenery is small, but it must be correct. Call it when the scene is right. ? Li's book, what is important? What is the imaging principle of convex lens and concave mirror? First, the detailed explanation is:

Xia Jing:? The prison location, the scene is small and easy, and the big one (that is, orthography) is said to be inside and outside. ?

"Xia in the Mirror": Learn from Xi Zhi, learn from Xi Zhi, and the scenery is great; It is far away, the class is small, and the scenery is small. It must be correct. It starts from the middle edge and is long and straight. In addition to the middle, the mirror is close to the middle, so the mirror is big and the scenery is big; Far away, with small classes and small scenery, it will be very relaxed. It is right and long at the middle edge, and it is straight. ?

This paper describes the imaging principle of convex lens and concave mirror. What do Mr Li Yushu and others think? What is the point of this article? No, it is. The so-called convex mirror (convex mirror), which is called convex mirror today, is absolutely different from the so-called convex mirror. According to whether it is a convex lens or a concave mirror, everything in the focus becomes a virtual image (positive image), and everything outside the focus becomes a virtual image (inverted image). Both of them are close to the focus, with large shadows, far from the focus and small shadows. ? Is it easy? Meaning, Yu yue thought and? Stone? Pass, but train? Evil? That? Small and evil, big and positive, relative to literature and art? . Although the original meaning of this solution is not far away, it is better not to take its original meaning in the end. Is it easy? Who? Namely. Pour? It also means that things like to be reversed. It is the first and last translocation of things. What's it called? Medium? Who's that? Focus? Yeah, yeah. The key point is to put flammable things aside, which can burn but burn, hence the name. In addition to the inside, Jude's words are also outside the focus. Things are in the middle, near the focus, and there are many things in the mirror, so things are full of shadows. Far from the focus, there are fewer objects in the mirror, so the shadow of the object is small. Even those outside the middle. What I have learned is still reflected in the clouds. Everything is in focus; The shadow must be the orthomorphic shape of the object, and it is the inverse shape out of focus. Positive? With what? Is it easy? Reason. Starting from the middle: it means starting from the center and it is a long straight line. Neutralization in the middle: it means that it still corresponds to the middle, and it is a long straight line because of its evil. Mr. Li Yushu explained this article with the principle of convex lens; Wang interprets this article in the way of concave mirror. It says: This shows the phenomenon in concave mirror. It is said that the person who looks in the mirror (concave mirror) is in concave mirror? Medium? Beyond this, he sees himself as a reflection, smaller than people; Look in the mirror. Where? Medium? Within minutes, he saw himself as, like, bigger than a man. After that, I said: People are standing? Medium? Point, he saw his image is always upright, where did he come from? Medium? Move the point to the mirror, away from it? Medium? The closer the point is, the greater the distance is. Medium? The farther the point is, the smaller the image is; Where are you? Medium? What about outside the point? He always thinks of himself upside down. From where? Medium? The point moves outward, away from it? Medium? The closer the point is, the larger the image is. Medium? The farther the point is, the smaller the image is. According to the explanation of modern science, this? Medium? Point should refer to the focus of concave mirror.

Yin Jia Notes Zou Zhuyou? Shu Ge cloth? According to the Mohist Scripture? If you are close to the mirror, you will learn a lot and the scenery will be great; If you are far away, what you learn is small? And then what? The location of the prison is small and easy (the truth of compilation), but the big one is (the truth of truth)? Language, Jimozi known the size of the concave mirror statue and inverted it, and explained the reasons with a table. Now it is recorded as follows for reference:

Nine, acoustics,? Geophone? The invention of

? Geophone? It is a breakthrough in Mozi's fortification technology. It may have been invented by his great disciple Qiu Chuli in the early 4th century BC. He once said that hollow instruments were used as vibrators. Predict the position and direction of digging tunnels and burying explosives when the enemy besieged the city. Fogg called them? Geophone? (Ceophones).

Mozi's "Bei Xue" has detailed records on this matter:

? Waiting for the right person, adapting to artificial changes, building walls and gathering soil is very unusual. If Peng has turbid water, the cave soil is also urgent, and the cave in the city is straight. Through the city, five steps and one well, the city is full, the highland is five feet and the ground is three feet. Today, the Potter is a peddler and can hold 40 barrels. The top is solid and smooth, and a thin gap is dug in the valley and put in the well, so that people with ears can hear it, know the location of the cave and dig the cave to meet it. ?

This passage was written about 370 BC. So we learned China's technical knowledge in this field (a small metal pot with a concave cover and a hole in it, which can be traced back to the Qin and Han Dynasties. Is it legendary? Geophone? (Ceophone). Or it can be used to listen to the vibration of horses galloping in the distance conveyed by the ground. ) its time is about before the period when there is evidence in Europe.

This kind of stereo? Vibration detection? The invention of tools was extremely applicable and proud at that time. Readers, what do you think?

X. Mechanical Engineering? Piston bellows? And then what? Crossbow machine? manufacturing industry

About the Warring States Period? Bellows? Some of his insights come from the source of the accident, the chapter on military technology in Jimo Zi's book. Therefore, at the end of 4th century BC, poisonous smoke was produced by dried mustard seed balls and ground plants that were commonly used in wars. Bellows? Blow poisonous smoke into the opening of the attack city troops or enemy pits. As Mozi said:

There are two bottles of cowhide in the kitchen and a hundred drums in the bridge. Another kind of cloud:

Or the furnace has four holes, and the holes meet at the same time. Wash it with orange juice and smoke it with drums (that is, blown boxes).

The importance of these two paragraphs lies in explaining that the mechanization of the alternating push-pull movement of two cylinders (or cans) at that time seems to have led to people.

? Bellows? For what? Poisonous smoke ejector? . It can be traced back to the early 4th century BC, because it was mentioned in several volumes before Mozi.

It can be seen from this point that the synthesis of piston and cylinder is not far away.

Mozi? Prepare the city gate "cloud:? The length of the spin shooter is six feet, and the length of the roller is two feet: the middle chisel is a through arm, and the arm is as long as Huan, so that the good shooter is inseparable from the same person. ?

Otherwise, what does this mean? Even a crossbow? Or? Crossbow? Just (see Mozi? Prepare for high "). Zhong Zhong Mianyun:? As soon as the axle turns, the twelve crossbows are fixed on the car and connected by iron hooks and ropes. As soon as the shaft turns, the crossbow is full and the string is hung on the tooth. There are seven crossbows, and there are a bunch of big arrows in the middle, which are seven inches long and five inches around. The quiver is three feet long and five inches in circumference, with iron leaves as feathers. Left and right three paragraphs, less than the arrow. When he struck his teeth, all the strings rose together. After 700 steps, all the barriers in the city were destroyed and the floor sculls fell, which was called crossbows. ?

We know that the engineers of Mohist believers in the 3rd century BC must be familiar with Archimedes (according to Mo Qing, Mohism was half a century earlier than Acheson. ) most of the balance principle. In the following century, this understanding of leverage was put to good use in China? Crossbow machine? Manufacturing, and almost engaged in mass production.

This mechanism includes complex bending levers and pawls; A large range and use of wood is a counterweight bucket or orange; Although the lever press is not important, it is an important application, and the combination of levers is often used to lift the load.

But leverage was the most ingenious application in ancient times, wasn't it? Crossbow machine? , but textile machinery, in which levers and connecting rods are combined with pedals, including hinges or movable joints, to form a complex connecting rod mechanism.

Looking at the above ten inventions and discoveries of Mozi, there are actually more than this number, including more than two.

The reason why I still take it? Ten? For the caller: one? Ten? It means majority and completeness; Second, some parts of it are too vague to compare with their own intentions. If it is deleted, can it still be counted as such? Ten? So is the number of items.

See this? Ten? Great inventions and discoveries. What do I call them? Kesheng? Who shouldn't?