The role of archeology

Archaeology

Archaeology belongs to the field of humanities and is an important part of historical science. Its mission is to study the history of ancient human society based on the physical objects left behind by ancient humans through various activities. Physical data include various relics and relics, which are mostly buried underground and must be scientifically investigated and excavated before they can be systematically and completely revealed and collected. Therefore, the basis of archaeological research lies in field investigation and excavation work.

The emergence of archeology has a long history, but it only developed into a science in modern times. Modern archeology originated in Europe and later spread to countries around the world. Epigraphy since the Northern Song Dynasty is the predecessor of Chinese archeology, but it was not until the 1920s that modern archeology based on field surveys and excavations appeared in China. As a modern science, archeology has a complete and rigorous methodology. It includes branches such as prehistoric archeology, historical archeology and field archaeology, and is closely related to many disciplines in the fields of natural sciences and technical sciences, as well as other disciplines in the fields of humanities and social sciences.

The branches of archeology and their relationship with other disciplines

The branches of archeology

According to the chronological scope of research, specific objects, means and methods used, etc. Different from each other, archeology can be divided into branches such as prehistoric archeology, historical archeology, field archeology and various special archeology.

Prehistoric Archeology and Historical Archeology According to the chronological scope of research, archeology can be divided into two branches: prehistoric archeology and historical archeology. Some people advocate adding protohistorical archeology between the two to form the three major branches. However, in a practical sense, protohistorical archeology is not as important as the first two.

The research scope of prehistoric archeology is human history before writing, while the research scope of historical archeology is limited to human history after documented records. The boundary between the two lies in the invention of writing. In various parts of the world, writing was invented earlier and later, so the lower age limit of prehistoric archeology and the upper age limit of historical archeology are different in each region.

Both prehistoric archeology and historical archeology take relics and relics as their research objects, which is the similarity between them. However, since historical archeology must refer to documentary records, while prehistoric archeology does not have any documentary records to rely on, the research tasks of the two are also different. Prehistoric archeology bears all the responsibilities for studying human history in prehistoric times, while historical archeology can cooperate with the division of history to complement each other and jointly study the history of human society in historical times.

Since prehistoric archeology mainly studies the Paleolithic Age and Neolithic Age (sometimes including the Bronze Age and Early Iron Age), historical archeology mainly studies the Bronze Age, especially the Iron Age. There are certain differences in nature between relics and relics, so their research methods are also different. In terms of its relationship with other disciplines, prehistoric archeology must be fully integrated with geology, paleontology, paleoanthropology, ethnology and other disciplines, while historical archeology must cooperate with history and rely on paleography, Branches such as inscription studies, ancient coin studies, and ancient architecture studies. In terms of means of determining absolute dates, prehistoric archeology relies to a large extent on techniques from natural sciences such as physics and chemistry, while historical archeology mainly relies on documentary records and almanac research.

Field Archeology The name "field archeology" was officially proposed in the early 20th century. However, field archeology at that time mainly focused on surveying ruins and relics on the ground, relying on maps for investigation, and sometimes mapping maps based on survey results as attachments to records. Since then, field archeology around the world has shifted to centering on excavations, expanding the objects and scope of investigation, gradually improving methods, and rapidly advancing technology. Various natural science methods were used one after another, and many mechanical equipment were used as tools for investigation and excavation. Use methods such as aerial photography and satellite photography, magnetic exploration and ground resistance exploration to discover ruins and relics, use infrared photography and various other special photography techniques to measure and map, and take samples for pollen analysis and various physical and chemical dating. As well as preserving the excavated remains on site, etc., the working scope of field archeology has been expanded and the technology has been strengthened. The objects of investigation and excavation have also expanded from general residential sites and tombs to various large-scale sites such as roads, bridges, ditches, canals, farmland, cities, ports, kilns and mines, etc., which requires archaeologists to work with various sites. Only through the collaboration of experts in relevant disciplines can comprehensive and comprehensive research tasks be completed.

Archaeological research is a whole, and field investigation and excavation and indoor organization research are closely related and cannot be completely separated. However, since investigation and excavation work requires a complete set of methodology, many special instruments and equipment are used, and natural science methods are widely used, this makes field archeology relatively independent. It is natural to regard it as an important branch of archeology.

Special Archeology As a branch of archeology, the name Special Archeology is used to distinguish it from the main branches of archeology such as prehistoric archeology, historical archeology, and field archeology. It includes various other branches besides the above three major branches.

Some are divided according to different research objects, such as art archeology, religious archeology, ancient coin studies, paleography and inscriptions, etc.; some are divided according to different means and methods used, such as aviation archeology, underwater archeology, etc.

Archaeology and ancient art history often have the same information. Many research objects in the history of ancient art, from cave paintings and rock paintings of the Paleolithic Age to paintings, sculptures, statues, various handicrafts and shrines, temples and cave temples of various eras, are all relics and relics. Archaeological typology and chronology methods are also applicable to the study of ancient art history. However, as a branch of archeology, art archeology starts from the standpoint of historical science, using various art objects as physical specimens, and the goal of research is to restore ancient social culture. This is fundamentally different from the fact that art historians start from the aesthetic concept as an ideology to study various works of art. Since the research objects of art archeology range from the Paleolithic Age to all historical eras, it belongs to the scope of both prehistoric archeology and historical archeology. And since most of the various fine arts as relics and relics are discovered during field surveys and excavations, the relationship between fine art archeology and field archeology is also quite close.

Religious archeology is a branch of archeology that studies religious relics and relics. In ancient times, religious beliefs were prevalent in human society. Therefore, when studying the history of human society, religious activities must also be regarded as an important aspect. Temples, temples, altars, sacrificial vessels, statues, murals, scriptures and talismans of various eras are all specific research objects of religious archeology, and some have certain artistic value, so the difference between religious archeology and fine art archeology is The relationship is also relatively close. Among religious archeology, Christian archeology in Europe, Islamic archeology in North Africa and West and Central Asia, and Buddhist archeology in South and East Asia are the most important, and they all belong to the field of historical archaeology. However, as early as the Paleolithic Age and the Neolithic Age, humans had religious activities and had certain relics and relics. Therefore, the branch of religious archeology should also be included in the field of prehistoric archeology.

Archaeology that takes ancient coins as its research object is called ancient coinology. Since the casting date of ancient coins is clear, it has become one of the most common basis for archaeological dating. However, as a branch of archeology, the study of ancient money has a broader and more important significance. The goal of ancient money science is not only to determine the casting age of various ancient coins, but also to identify their issuers and places of issuance, and determine Their value is to study the meaning and style of inscriptions and patterns, thereby providing materials for the study of economic history, cultural history and even art history. By investigating the geographical distribution of unearthed ancient coins, we can also study the economic, trade and cultural exchanges in various regions of the world, and provide clues for judging the transportation routes at that time. Since ancient money is a product of the historical era, the study of ancient money belongs to the scope of historical archaeology.

As a branch of archaeology, the research objects of paleography and inscriptions must be the words cast, engraved or written on ruins and relics, which are different from ordinary books and documents. Remains and relics containing literary texts can generally be divided into two categories. One category includes epitaphs, tablets, seals, oracle bones, bamboo slips, clay tablets, silk and paper books, etc. Literary writing is the main content of the artifacts; the other category includes commemorative buildings, sculptures, paintings, currency, weights and measures, and mirrors. Jian, tools, weapons and various containers, etc., the inscription is in a subsidiary position. The task of paleography and engraving is to identify the characters of the inscriptions, interpret the meaning of the words, and distinguish the fonts of different eras and regions. The latter is called "paleography" in countries that use the pinyin alphabet. As for the ancient characters that have been discovered, including ancient Indian characters, Khitan characters and Mayan characters, although many single characters can be recognized, the words cannot be interpreted smoothly. However, ancient Egyptian scripts, Sumerian scripts, Mycenaean scripts (Linear B) and Shang and Zhou oracle bone scripts have been able to be interpreted in detail, thus providing insights into the ancient Egyptian civilization, Sumerian civilization, and Mycenaean era. Greek civilization and China's Yin Shang civilization played a big role. In addition, the study of inscriptions can also determine the age, maker, owner, location, use and purpose of manufacture of relics and relics. Since inscriptions exist on relics and relics, their reliability is much greater than the records in the documents. They can not only make up for the shortcomings of the records in the documents, but sometimes also correct their errors. Therefore, paleography and inscriptions are of great significance to the research of primitive archeology and historical archaeology.

Aviation archeology refers to the use of aircraft to take photos from the air to the ground, and determine the shape, type and distribution of relics and relics through observation and analysis of the photos obtained. Aviation archeology began at the end of the First World War. At that time, archaeologists in Britain, France and Germany used aerial photos taken by the air force to explore the terrain to explore ancient ruins on the ground. After the war, this work was further carried out, especially the work of British archaeologists, which laid the foundation of aviation archaeology. Over the past decades, the technology of aviation archeology has been continuously improved, especially the invention of artificial satellites and the development of photography technology, which has greatly improved the effectiveness of aviation archeology. Relics displayed and identified through aerial photography and aerospace photography can generally be divided into three categories.

① Shown by the shadows produced when the sun rays obliquely, such as dikes, city walls, and tombs and other ruins; ② Relics such as pits, trenches, and roads, which are distinguished by the light and dark colors of soil due to different soil textures; ③ From grains Relics such as villages, cities, farmland, roads, canals and other sites can be distinguished by the different shades of green of plants, weeds and other plants. In addition, ruins submerged in the sea can sometimes be discovered through aerial photography; the discovery of two Phoenician seaports, Tyre and Sidon, which continued into the Roman period, is a famous example. Aviation archeology has achieved great results and can be regarded as a new force in field archaeology.

The origins of underwater archeology can be traced back to the Italians exploring shipwrecks on the seabed in the 16th century. By the early 20th century, underwater archaeological surveys were being conducted all over the world. The most famous ones were the search for sacrifices and sacrifices in the "Sacred Pool" at the Mayan cultural site of Chichén Itza in Mexico, and the search for full-volume sea objects at Mahdia Port in Tunisia. Roman shipwreck of ancient Greek art. However, due to the limitations of diving conditions, detailed operations and records cannot be made during the investigation. The diving lung was invented in 1943, and all aspects of equipment and conditions were improved after World War II, which allowed true underwater archeology to be established. Starting in the 1960s, first the French excavated shipwrecks on the seabed near Marseille, and then an American archaeological team excavated shipwrecks from the Greco-Roman era and the late Bronze Age on the seabed near Turkey. Not only did they obtain many antiquities in the ships, but they also provided valuable information for the study of ancient shipbuilding and navigation. Provides important new information on technology, maritime transport, and trade. The objects of underwater archeology have expanded from sunken objects and shipwrecks to ruins such as cities and ports submerged in lakes and seas. The means and methods of survey, excavation, and photographic recording have also been greatly improved, making underwater archeology have a significant impact. Speed ??keeps getting results. It can be considered that underwater archeology is an extension of field archeology in waters.

In addition to the various main branches mentioned above, archeology can also be divided into "European Archeology", "Egyptian Archeology", "Chinese Archeology" and "Japanese Archeology" according to different regions. The archeology of each region can be divided into "classical archeology" (Greek and Roman archeology), "Shang and Zhou archeology" and many other branches according to different eras.

The relationship between archeology and other disciplines Archeology is a very wide-ranging science and is related to many other disciplines. It must receive support and assistance from these disciplines in order to complete various research tasks.

Types of relevant disciplines The disciplines related to archeology can be roughly divided into three major aspects: natural sciences, engineering and technical sciences, and humanities and social sciences.

In terms of natural sciences, disciplines such as physical geography, geology, meteorology and ecology mainly assist in the study of the geological history and natural resources of the area where the site is located, and restore the natural environment at that time from all aspects. Biology (zoology and botany) and physical anthropology are mainly used to identify and determine the age of unearthed plant remains, animal and human bones. Physics and chemistry are used in the exploration of relics, the analysis of their composition and properties, and the determination of their age.

In terms of engineering technology and science, architecture and civil engineering are used in the excavation, measurement, and mapping of ruins, restoration of excavated remains or preservation on site, etc. Mining metallurgy, ceramics and dyeing and weaving are applied to the investigation of industrial sites, mine sites, kiln sites and other relics, and the analysis and research of copper, iron, ceramics, glassware, textiles and other relics. Shipbuilding is specifically applied to the investigation and research of excavated shipbuilding workshop sites and ship relics.

In the humanities and social sciences, ethnology, folklore, linguistics, human geography, sociology, religion, economics, politics and law are all based on relics and relics respectively. Information provided on each subject is researched and interpreted. Art history and architectural history mainly study the excavated art works and various architectural remains, and make judgments and explanations on their style, style, age, construction technology and preservation issues. In addition to providing documentary explanations for various excavated relics and relics and helping to determine their age, history also provides extensive documentation on ancient political organizations, social structures, economic systems, and various issues involving spiritual culture. information and detailed explanations to make up for the shortcomings and shortcomings of archeology in these aspects.

Some examples of related disciplines. Here we only take geology, botany, zoology and physical anthropology as examples to further illustrate the close relationship between them and archeology.

The greatest contribution of geology to archaeological research is the comprehensive restoration of the Quaternary natural environment. According to the study of Quaternary geology, it can be confirmed that the Pleistocene Epoch in which early humans lived was an era of dramatic climate changes on the earth. The high mountains in the high latitudes, middle latitudes and low latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere experienced large-scale glacial activities at that time. The expansion and retreat of glaciers formed cold glacial periods and warm interglacial periods. The multiple alternations between the two led to a series of events such as large rises and falls in sea levels, shifts in climate zones, and migration or extinction of animals and plants. These events All had a great impact on the evolution of early human physique, cultural development and changes in residential areas. Therefore, the research results of Quaternary geology have become an indispensable basis for the archaeological research of the Paleolithic Age.

In geology, the Pleistocene can be divided into early, middle and late periods based on the nature of fauna, characteristics of sediments and other environmental change factors, and the absolute age of each period can be inferred. This also laid the foundation for the staging of Paleolithic archeology.

The application of geology in general archaeology is mainly the identification of rocks and minerals. A large number of stone tools from the Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages, as well as many stone products from various eras, including non-metallic minerals such as gems and semi-precious stones, can be identified by rock sectioning and microscopy. This not only confirms the nature of rocks and minerals, but also infers their origin.

Botany is widely used in archaeology. In general sites and tombs, the plant remains most likely to be encountered are wood, fibers and seeds, the latter including grains, fruit cores and melon seeds. Through the identification of wood, we can understand the materials of various wooden utensils, and then infer their production methods and effectiveness. Through the identification of fibers, we can understand the material of textiles and then explore the situation of agriculture and textile industry. Through the identification of seeds, we can understand the types of crops, and then demonstrate the level of agricultural development and the living conditions of residents.

The application of botany in archaeology is also fully reflected in the analysis and research of spore pollen. Spore pollen has the characteristics of small size, light weight, firm texture, large output, and easy to fly. Therefore, it is generally found in large amounts in the strata of various sites and can be collected and analyzed. Through the identification of spore pollen, we can infer the types of plants at that time; by counting the number of various spore pollen, we can understand the vegetation appearance at that time. Since certain plant species require a certain ecological environment, the natural environment such as geography and climate at that time can be inferred by studying the vegetation appearance. For example, the discovery of pollen from aquatic plants such as water lilies indicates that there were lakes and swamps nearby at that time; the discovery of large amounts of pollen from cold-resistant trees such as spruce and fir indicates that the local climate was cold and humid at that time. As time goes by, the plant world is always evolving from low-level to high-level, from simple to complex. Therefore, the discovery of different types and different combinations of spore pollen from different strata can also help archaeologists divide and check stratigraphic layers.

Both prehistoric archeology and historical archeology are closely related to zoology. The animal bones unearthed from Paleolithic sites are all wild animals. The characteristics, combination and replacement of fauna, as well as the statistics of the ratio between extinct species and species still living in the fauna, are helpful in determining the relative age of sites, dividing strata and making comparisons between sites. Research. Based on the characteristics and distribution of various ecological types in the fauna, combined with other relevant information, the living environment and climate conditions of humans at that time can also be analyzed.

In the Neolithic Age, domestic animals began to appear all over the world. Therefore, the animal bones unearthed from various sites can be used as the most direct basis for studying the origin of domestic animals. The study of various primitive characteristics of domestic animals in the early Neolithic Age helps to understand how humans first understood and transformed nature. Through the comparative study of animal bones unearthed from sites in various regions of the world, we can also understand the regional development and spread of various livestock raising industries, and then infer the economic and cultural exchange relationships between regions.

Neolithic sites often contain a large number of animal bones; sites near waters also contain many fish and shellfish remains. If they are all wild animals, it means that the fishing and hunting economy still plays an important role; if they are mainly domestic animals, it means that they have entered the stage of animal husbandry economy. If there are both wild animals and domestic animals, the quantity ratio of the two can be used as a symbol to judge whether the hunting economy or the livestock economy is more developed. If the remains of animals buried in tombs and the aggregates used in bone products do not belong to animals produced in the region, we can infer the exchange and exchange relationships between local residents and residents from other places. The study of animal and livestock remains unearthed from tombs in various historical eras will also help to further understand the conditions of agriculture and animal husbandry in each era.

The application of physical anthropology in archaeology includes, in addition to the prehistoric archeology of the Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages, archeology of various historical eras. Determining the age and gender of the deceased from the skeleton is one of the basic projects in physical anthropology. The human bone data in the tombs that have been identified by gender and age can become important clues to explore the funeral customs, marriage system and social organization form at that time; in Neolithic archeology, this is very important for studying the development and disintegration process of primitive clan society. It also has important meaning. In addition, the identification of the gender and age of the tomb owner will also help to understand the division of labor and some special customs of the residents at that time. By analyzing the age distribution of the deceased in the tombs of the same period, we can also observe the living conditions of the residents at that time from one aspect.

Since the appearance characteristics of living humans are closely related to the morphological structure of bones, ethnographic research can be conducted through the observation of ancient human skeletons. Combining archaeological data and ancient literature data to study the physical relationship between various ethnic groups in ancient times is also an important topic in anthropological research. Although analyzing the racial types of the residents of an ancient site does not mean that they can solve the problem of their ethnic origin, ethnographic research on the residents of a certain ethnic group can also provide clues for exploring the origin of the ethnic group.

By studying human bone data from different eras and regions, we can understand the physical evolution and distribution patterns of ancient residents; and based on the appearance of physical polymorphism at the same site, we can understand issues related to migration and conquest at that time. In addition, based on the study of skeletal pathology, we can also understand ancient diseases and environmental conditions.

The term "archaeology" in Chinese is translated from European texts. In the 17th century, archeology referred to the study of antiquities and monuments. In the 17th and 18th centuries, it generally referred to the study of antiquities and monuments with artistic value. It was not until the 19th century that it generally referred to the study of all antiquities and monuments.

In China, the name "ancient learning" existed in the Eastern Han Dynasty (1st to 2nd century). "Book of the Later Han" says that Ma Rong "passed on ancient learning", Jia Kui "conducted ancient learning", Huan Tan "loved ancient learning", and Zheng Xing "was good at ancient learning". The so-called "ancient learning" here refers specifically to the study of ancient texts and classics , actually also includes paleography. In the middle of the Northern Song Dynasty (11th century), "Epigraphy" was born, and its research objects were limited to ancient "Ji Jin" (bronze utensils) and stone carvings. By the end of the Qing Dynasty (19th century), the research objects of epigraphy had expanded from bronzes and stone carvings to various other antiquities, so some people advocated renaming epigraphy "ancient artifacts". Since "Antiquities" from the late Qing Dynasty to the Republic of China was close to modern archeology, some people also translated the word "Archaeology" in European texts as "Antiquities" (such as the 1931 Business Edition of "Encyclopedia" ). In fact, this kind of "ancient artifact science" in China is not equal to archeology. It must be systematized before it can become a part of archeology.

The term archeology has three main meanings:

The first meaning refers to the historical knowledge obtained from archaeological research, and sometimes it can be extended to books describing this knowledge;

The second meaning refers to the archaeological methods and techniques used to obtain this kind of knowledge, including methods and techniques for collecting and preserving data, verifying and verifying data, and arranging and organizing data;

The third meaning refers to theoretical research and explanation, used to clarify the causal relationships contained in various archaeological data and demonstrate the laws that existed in the historical development process of ancient society.

Now, as a modern science, archeology has its substantial content, careful methods, systematic theory and clear goals. Although there is no universally recognized definition, the academic community's understanding of the term archeology is roughly the same around the world. Therefore, we can start from the same understanding and take into account the above three meanings to define archeology: Archeology is a discipline that studies the history of ancient human society based on the physical objects left behind by ancient humans through various activities. science. For such a definition, the following explanations and explanations are needed:

The chronological scope of the study

Archaeology is an integral part of historical science. But the scope of its research is ancient times, so it has nothing to do with modern history or modern history. Archeology in every country has its own age limit. For example, the lower limit of British archeology is the Norman invasion (1066), the lower limit of French archeology is the fall of the Carolingian dynasty (987), and the lower limit of archeology in the Americas is C. Columbus (approx. 1451-1506) discovered the New World (1492). Generally speaking, the lower limit of Chinese archeology can be set at the demise of the Ming Dynasty (1644).

In recent times, there has been "medieval archeology" in Britain, whose lower limit extends to the beginning of the bourgeois revolution (1640); there is also so-called "industrial archeology", whose lower limit extends to The early industrial revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries. In the Americas, there is the so-called "historical archeology" or "colonial archeology", which ranges from after Columbus discovered the Americas until the end of the 18th century or the beginning of the 19th century when American countries gained political independence. However, the so-called "industrial archeology" in the United Kingdom and the so-called "historical archeology" or "colonial archeology" in the Americas actually use archaeological methods to study modern history, so they cannot be counted as true archaeology.

On the contrary, some people limit the scope of archeology to the prehistoric era, that is, ancient times without written records. In this way, the historical eras of many ancient civilizations are also excluded from the chronological scope of archaeological research, which is also inappropriate. Archeology does not study modern times and modern times, but studies ancient times. This must be affirmed. However, the "ancient times" studied by archeology should also include the primitive era and the historical era in addition to the prehistoric era. As far as Chinese archeology is concerned, the historical era not only refers to the Shang Dynasty and Zhou Dynasty, but also includes the Qin, Han and subsequent dynasties; it is wrong to say that "the ancients do not examine the "three dynasties" and below". Of course, the older the history and the fewer written records, the more important archaeological research becomes. To understand the social history of prehistoric times without written records, we must rely heavily on archeology, so prehistoric archeology and prehistory are equated.

As relics and relics of physical data, the research object of archeology is physical data. Some people take the word "ancient" seriously and think that as long as they examine ancient things, whether based on documentary materials or physical materials, it can be regarded as archeology. In fact, the object of archaeological research is material remains, that is, ancient ruins and relics. This is the most important difference between it and the narrow sense of history that relies on documentary records to study human history.

Archeology and history are the two main components of historical science (history in the broad sense). They are like the two wheels of a car and cannot be neglected. However, although the relationship between the two is very close, they are independent. They all belong to the science of "time" and both aim to study the history of ancient human society. However, the data used are very different, and therefore the methods used are also different. Some people call history in the narrow sense that relies on documentary materials to study ancient human history archeology, which is inconsistent with the basic meaning of modern archeology.

The physical objects that are the objects of archaeological research should be left behind by ancient humans through various activities and have been consciously processed by humans. If it is a natural object that has not been processed by humans, it must be related to human activities or be able to reflect human activities. This shows that archeology is a historical science in the humanities, not a natural science, although the techniques and methods of various natural sciences must be fully utilized in the archaeological research process.