What are the main aspects of industrial revolution in europe's influence on architecture at that time?

/kloc-the British bourgeois revolution, which began in 0/640, marked the modern stage of world history. /kloc-At the end of 0/8th century, the industrial revolution first broke out in Britain, and then the United States, France, Germany and other countries broke out one after another. By the nineteenth century, the industrialization of these countries had expanded from light industry to heavy industry, and reached its climax at the end of the nineteenth century. In this way, western countries entered the industrialized society.

During this period, various contradictions and changes have taken place in cities and buildings in capitalist countries in Europe and America: the contradiction between the retro trend of thought in architectural creation and the impact of new building materials and structures brought about by the industrial revolution on architectural design ideas; The contradiction between architect's traditional academic education, brand-new architectural types and architectural needs, the vicious expansion of urban population and the rapid development of large industrial cities. This is a period that breeds new architectural styles, and it is also a period in which old and new factors coexist.

Materials and new technologies

The British industrial revolution, which began in the middle of18th century, led to great progress in society, thought and human civilization, and had a far-reaching impact on architecture. Industrial revolution is the transition of social production from manual workshop to large machine industry, the fundamental change of production technology and the drastic change of social relations. On the one hand, the development of production mode and construction technology, on the other hand, the emerging new materials, new equipment and new technology have opened up broad prospects for the development of modern architecture. It is the application of these new technologies that breaks through the limitation of the height and span of traditional buildings, endows buildings with greater freedom in plane and space design, and also affects the changes of architectural forms. Among them, steel, concrete and glass are widely used in buildings.

Initial pig iron structure

The use of metals as building materials began as early as in ancient buildings, and a large number of applications, especially steel as the main material of building structures, began in modern times. With the rise of cast iron industry, 1775~ 1779, the first crude iron bridge (designed by Abraham Darby) was built on the severn river in England. 1793~ 1796, a relatively new single-span arch bridge-Sunderland bridge appeared in London. In building construction, iron was first applied to roofs, such as the iron roof built by 1786 French Theatre (designer: Victor Louis) and the seven-story workshop of salford Cotton Mill in Manchester, England (designer: Watt and Bolton) built in180/0/year. The iron structure adopted the I-shaped section for the first time. In addition, in order to meet the needs of lighting, iron and glass were used together, which made great achievements in the architecture of19th century. For example, the Orlean Gallery (1829- 183 1, p. Fontaine) in the Old Palace in Paris, the greenhouse in the Paris Botanical Garden (1833, Rouhault), the first huge building composed entirely of iron frames and glass, and the most famous one is/kloc-.

steel-frame construction

The frame structure was originally developed in the United States, and its main feature is that the load-bearing wall is replaced by pig iron frame, and the outer wall no longer undertakes the load-bearing mission, thus liberating the facade of the outer wall. Paris Saint Genevieve Library, built in 1858- 1868, is a representative of the early pig iron frame form. In addition, there are: Leeds Currency Exchange, Old London Railway Station, Milan Emmanuel Art Museum, Liverpool House, London Old Swan House, Fanan Hall of Yale University, etc. 1850- 1880 during the "pig iron age" in the United States, a large number of shops, warehouses and government buildings mostly adopted pig iron component facades or frames. For example, there are more than 500 buildings with this pig iron structure on the banks of St. Louis. The slender pig iron beams and columns on the facade have replaced the impression of heavy and steady classical buildings, but they have not completely got rid of the fetters of classical forms. Under the new structural technical conditions, the number and height of buildings have made great breakthroughs. The first high-rise building built according to the principle of modern steel frame structure is the Chicago Family Insurance Company Building (1883- 1885, William Le Baron Jenney), with 10 floors, and its shape still maintains a classical proportion.

The planning theory that advocates the long and narrow strip development of urban plane layout. The planning principle of "taking the city" is to take traffic trunk lines as the main backbone of urban layout; Urban living land and production land are arranged in parallel along the main traffic trunk lines; Most residents commute horizontally between the corresponding residential areas and industrial areas. Traffic trunk lines are generally automobiles, roads or railways, and can also be supplemented by rivers. The city continues to develop and can continue to extend along the main traffic lines (vertically). Because of the limited lateral width of strip cities, residents are very close to rural nature. Vertical development is also conducive to the construction of municipal facilities. Ribbon cities are also easier to prevent the deterioration of urban environment due to excessive concentration due to the expansion of urban scale.

The more systematic idea of belt city was first put forward by Spanish engineer A. Soria I. Mata in 1882. He thinks that the rail transit system is the most economical, convenient and fastest, so the city should be built continuously along the traffic lines. Such a belt-shaped city can connect the original towns and form a network of cities, which not only facilitates the contact between urban residents and nature, but also brings civilized facilities to the countryside.

1892, in order to realize his ideal, Soria designed a rail transit line in the suburbs of Madrid, connecting the original two towns to form an arc-shaped belt city, about 5 kilometers away from the center of Madrid. 190 1 railway completed, 1909 changed to tram. After years of operation, 19 12 has about 4,000 residents. Although the strip city planned and constructed by Soria is essentially a suburban residential area, due to land use and other reasons, the strip city develops horizontally and its appearance is distorted. However, the theory of belt city has far-reaching influence.

When the Soviet Union built Stalingrad in the 1920s, it adopted a strip-shaped urban planning scheme. The main urban land is arranged on both sides of the railway, and the industrial zone is close to the railway. On the other side of the industrial zone is green space, and then residential land. The outer side of residential land is agricultural area. The theory of belt city can be combined with other layout structures to learn from each other's strengths. For decades, many cities in the world have absorbed the advantages of strip cities and partially applied or modified them in urban planning.

Urbanization after the industrial revolution

After the industrial revolution, urbanization entered a new era, and the urban population grew rapidly. 185 1 year, the population living in major cities in Britain has accounted for 10.5% of the total population. In the United States, from 1790 to 100 in 1890, the number of cities and towns surged from 24 to 1348, and the proportion of urban population in the total population rose from 5. 1% to 35. 1%. The proportion of urban population in the world has increased from 3% in 1800 to 1900.

/kloc-at the end of 0/9, the British social activist e Howard put forward the concept of garden city, which has had a great influence on the urban planning of many countries in the world since the beginning of the 20th century.

In his book Tomorrow, the Road to Peace for Real Reform, Howard believes that an ideal city with both urban and rural advantages should be built, which he calls a "garden city". Garden city is essentially a combination of city and country.

19 19, after consulting Howard, the British "Garden City and Urban Planning Association" clearly put forward the meaning of garden city: garden city is a city designed for health, life and industry, and its scale can provide rich social life, but it should not exceed this level; There should be a permanent agricultural belt around, and the land in the city should be owned by the public and entrusted by a Committee.

Howard's garden city consists of two parts: the city and the country. The city is surrounded by agricultural land; Urban residents often get the supply of fresh agricultural products nearby; There is a nearby market for agricultural products, but the market is not limited to the local area. Residents of rural cities live and work here. All land belongs to all residents collectively, and rent must be paid for the use of land. All the income of the city comes from rent; The value-added gained from construction and settlement on the land is still owned by the collective. It is necessary to limit the size of the city so that every household can get close to the rural natural space very conveniently.

Howard made a concrete plan for his ideal city and drew a sketch. He suggested that the garden city should cover an area of 6000 mu (1 mu =0.405 hectares). The city is in the middle, covering an area of 1000 mu; The surrounding agricultural land covers an area of 5,000 mu, including cultivated land, pasture, orchard and forest, as well as agricultural colleges and nursing homes. Agricultural land is a reserved green belt and can never be used for other purposes. In this 6000-mu land, there are 32000 people living, 30000 of whom live in cities and 2000 in rural areas. If the population of a city exceeds the specified number, a new city should be built. Garden City is circular in plane, with a radius of about 1240 yards (1 yard =0.9 144 meters). The center is a park with an area of about 145 acres. There are six main roads extending from the city center to all directions, which divide the city into six districts. All kinds of factories, warehouses and markets are built in the outermost circle of the city, facing the outermost circular road on the one hand and the circular railway branch line on the other, and the traffic is very convenient. Howard pointed out that in order to reduce dust pollution in cities, electricity must be used as the power source, and urban garbage should be applied to agriculture.

Howard also envisioned several rural cities forming urban agglomerations around central cities, which he called "urban agglomerations without slums and smoke". The central city is slightly larger, with a suggested population of 58,000, and the area will increase accordingly. Cities are connected by railways.

After Howard put forward the idea of garden city, he realized his idea after careful consideration. Specific suggestions are put forward on the sources of funds, land planning, urban revenue and expenditure, management and other issues. He believes that industry and commerce should not be monopolized by the public, but should give conditions for the development of private enterprises.

Howard organized the Garden City Association on 1899 to promote his ideas. 1903, organized "Garden City Co., Ltd." to raise funds to buy land 56 kilometers away from London, and established the first garden city-Letchworth. 1920, the second garden city was built in Wehrwein, about 36 kilometers northwest of London. The establishment of garden cities has aroused social concern, and all parts of Europe have followed suit; But most of them just copied the name of "garden city", which is essentially a suburban residential area.

In view of the urban problems in modern society, Howard put forward a groundbreaking planning idea; It puts forward a series of original opinions on urban planning issues such as urban scale, layout structure, population density and green belt, and is a relatively complete urban planning ideological system. Garden city theory has played an important role in enlightening modern urban planning thoughts, and has had a great influence on some later urban planning theories, such as "organic evacuation" theory and satellite city theory. After the 1940s, Howard's thoughts were also reflected in some important urban planning schemes and urban planning laws and regulations.

65438+Architectural style popular in some European and American countries from the first half of the 9th century to the beginning of the 20th century. Eclectic architects imitate various architectural styles in history at will, or freely combine various architectural forms. They don't emphasize the fixed French style, but only the proportional balance and pure formal beauty.

With the development of capitalist society, various buildings are needed to meet various requirements. /kloc-in the 0/9th century, the convenience of transportation, the progress of archaeology, the development of publishing industry and the invention of photography technology all helped people to understand and master the architectural heritage of previous times and regions. As a result, many cities have seen buildings with Greek, Roman, Byzantine, medieval, Renaissance and oriental sentiments.

/kloc-in the middle of the 0/9th century, the most typical eclectic architecture was France, and the Paris Institute of Advanced Arts was the center for spreading eclectic art and architecture at that time. /kloc-at the end of 0/9 and the beginning of the 20th century, the United States was the most prominent. Generally speaking, the eclectic architectural trend of thought is relatively conservative, and new architectural forms are not created according to the emerging new building materials and new building technologies at that time.

The representative works of eclectic architecture are: Paris Opera House (186 1 ~ 1874), which is an important monument of the second French Empire. The facade of the theater imitates the late Baroque architectural style of Italy, mixed with complex carvings, which has a great influence on European architecture. The memorial building of Emmanuel II in Rome (1885 ~1911) was built in memory of risorgimento. It uses the Corinthian colonnade in Rome and the altar in the late classical period of Greece. The Sacred Heart Church in Paris (1875 ~ 1877) presents the Byzantine architectural style with its towering dome and heavy walls, and adopts the expression technique of Roman architecture. The Columbia World Expo Building in Chicago (1893) imitates the architectural style of Venice in the Italian Renaissance.

Romanticism is an active main trend of thought in the field of European literature and art from the second half of the eighteenth century to the first half of the nineteenth century, which is embodied in architecture.

18, 19 century's industrial revolution not only brought about the great development of production, but also brought chaos and congestion in cities, the breeding of slums and the deterioration of the environment. Therefore, a number of utopian socialists have emerged in society. They avoid the reality, yearn for the world outlook of the Middle Ages, advocate traditional culture and art, demand the development of individual freedom, and advocate nature. At the same time, they oppose the handicrafts made by machines under the capitalist system with the natural forms of medieval art and use them to compete with classical art.

Romanticism began in Britain in the second half of the 18th century, and imitated medieval fortresses or Gothic styles in the early days, such as Kexin Mansion in Ayrshire (1770- 1790) and Fontier Monastery Mansion in Wiltshire (1796-18/kloc). Mid-romanticism often appears in Gothic style, so it is also called Gothic Renaissance. It is not only used in churches, but also in general municipal buildings. The most famous works are the British Parliament Building (1836- 1868, Sir Charles Barry) and Neuschwanstein. In addition, St. Gilles Church in Stafford, England (184 1- 1846, A.W.N.Pugin) and St. Gilles Church in London (1842- 1844, Scott and Moffa).

Classical revival

Also known as classical architecture, it was popular in Europe from 1960s to19th century.

Since the Renaissance, European countries have always loved ancient culture. By the middle of18th century, ancient Roman cities were excavated one by one, and people found that there was a great difference between academic classic dogma and real classic works. Later, the study of ancient Greek ruins found that ancient Greek architecture and ancient Roman architecture were also very different. The architectural theory of this period broke through the rule of dogmatism for a hundred years and brought the real scientific and rational spirit into the architectural field. This rationality is not the proportion, clarity and clarity of transcendental geometry advertised by classicists, but the truth and essence of public energy, and everything in the building should show its reason for existence. The connection between classicism and rationalism has produced various neoclassicism, that is, classical revival architectural style.

Public buildings such as parliament, courts, banks, exchanges, museums, theaters and some memorial buildings mainly adopt the classical revival architectural style. France is the center of classical renaissance architecture activities, and its main representative works are Pantheon (1755- 1792), Arc de Triomphe (1808- 1836) and Madeleine Church (1806-/. /kloc-in the second half of the 0/8th century, the trend of Roman revival rose in Britain, with the Bank of England as its representative (1788-1835); /kloc-in the 0/9th century, Greek Renaissance architecture rose again. The representative works are the British Museum in London (1823- 1829) and the University of Edinburgh (1825- 1829). Germany is mainly a Greek revival style, and its representative works include Berlin Palace Theatre (1818-1821) and Amatas Museum (1824- 1828). After the independence of the United States, classical revival architecture prevailed, and the American Capitol (1793- 1867) imitated the Pantheon in Paris, which was a Roman revival style. Lincoln Memorial Hall (191-1922) is a model of Greek Renaissance architecture.