Scientists and their important deeds in the compulsory textbook of chemical physics in senior one.

Newton 166 1 year, Newton 19 years old, entered Trinity College of Cambridge University as a student with reduced tuition fees, paid tuition fees by doing chores for the college, became a scholarship winner in 1664, and obtained a bachelor's degree in 1665. /kloc-In the mid-7th century, the education system of Cambridge University was still permeated with a strong flavor of medieval scholasticism. When Newton entered Cambridge, there were also some courses of scholasticism, such as logic, ancient prose, grammar, ancient history, theology and so on. Two years later, Trinity College took on a new look. Lucas created a unique lecture, which stipulated that natural science knowledge should be taught, such as geography, physics, astronomy, mathematics and so on. The first professor of the lecture, Isaac Barrow, was a learned scientist. The scholar had a unique vision and saw that Newton had profound observation and keen understanding. So he taught Newton all his mathematical knowledge, including the method of calculating the area of curve graphics, and led Newton to the research field of modern natural science. During this period of study, Newton mastered arithmetic and trigonometry, and read Kepler's Optics, Descartes' Principles of Geometry and Philosophy, Galileo's Dialogue between Two World Systems, Hooke's Micro Atlas, and the historical and early philosophical journals of the Royal Society. Newton's time under Barrow's door was the key period of his research. Barrow is older than Newton 12 years old and is good at mathematics and optics. He admired Newton's talent very much and thought that Newton's talent in mathematics surpassed himself. Newton later recalled: "Dr. Barrow taught courses in kinematics at that time, and perhaps it was these courses that prompted me to study this problem." Newton relied heavily on teaching himself mathematics at that time. He studied Euclid's Elements of Geometry, Descartes' Geometry, Wallis' arithmetica infinitorum, Barrow's lectures on mathematics and the works of many mathematicians. Among them, Descartes' Geometry and Wallis' arithmetica infinitorum had a decisive influence on Newton, and Newton quickly moved to the forefront of mathematics at that time-analytic geometry and calculus. 1664, Newton was elected as Barrow's assistant, and the next year, the Council of Cambridge University passed the decision to grant Newton a bachelor's degree. 1665 to 1666, a serious plague swept through London, and Cambridge was not far from London. Because of fear, the school was closed, and Newton left school and went home in June 1665. Because Newton was influenced and influenced by mathematics and natural science in Cambridge, he had a strong interest in exploring natural phenomena, and the quiet environment in his hometown made his thoughts spread their wings and fly. The short period from 1665 to 1666 became the golden age of Newton's scientific career. He is full of thinking in the field of natural science, brilliant and productive, thinking about problems that his predecessors have never thought about, stepping into fields that his predecessors have never set foot in, and creating unprecedented amazing achievements. At the beginning of 1665, Newton established the approximation method of series and the law that binomial with arbitrary power is transformed into series; In June of the same year 165438+ 10, the forward serial number method (differential) was established; The following year (65438+ 10), the color theory was studied with prism; In May, I began to study the reverse flow number method (integral). During this year, Newton began to think of studying gravity and wanted to extend the theory of gravity to the orbit of the moon. He also deduced from Kepler's law that the force that keeps planets in orbit must be inversely proportional to the square of their distance from the center of rotation. The legend that Newton didn't realize gravity until he saw the apple fall to the ground was also an anecdote that happened at this time. In a word, during his two years in his hometown, Newton engaged in scientific creation with more vigorous energy than before and cared about natural philosophy. His three great achievements: calculus, gravitation and optical analysis were conceived and formed at this time. It can be said that Newton at this time has begun to describe the blueprint of most scientific creations in his life. 1667 Shortly after Easter, Newton returned to Cambridge University. 1 June1day was elected as a specialist partner of Trinity College, and he obtained his master's degree on March 16 the following year, and became a specialist partner at the same time. 1669, 10 year1October 27th, Barrow resigned as a professor to help Newton. At the age of 26, Newton was promoted to professor of mathematics and served as Professor of Lucas. Barrow paved the way for Newton's scientific career. Without the help of Uncle Newton and Barrow, Newton, a swift horse, might not have galloped on the road of science. Barrow gave way to a wise man, which was told as a story in the history of science.

Establish calculus

Among all Newton's scientific contributions, mathematical achievements occupy a prominent position. The first creative achievement in his mathematical career was the discovery of binomial theorem. According to Newton's own recollection, he discovered this theorem when he tried to modify his series of finding the area of a circle while studying Dr. Wallis' arithmetica infinitorum in the winter of 1664 and 1665. Descartes' analytic geometry maps the functional relationship describing motion to geometric curves. Newton found a new way out under the guidance of his teacher Barrow and on the basis of studying Descartes' analytic geometry. The speed at any moment can be regarded as the average speed in a small time range, which is the ratio of a small distance to a time interval. When this small time interval is reduced to infinity, it is the exact value of this point. This is the concept of differentiation. The establishment of calculus is Newton's most outstanding mathematical achievement. Newton founded this mathematical theory, which is directly related to physical concepts, in order to solve the problem of motion. Newton called it "flow counting". Some specific problems it deals with, such as tangent problem, quadrature problem, instantaneous velocity problem, maximum and minimum value of function, have been studied before Newton. But Newton surpassed his predecessors. He synthesized the scattered conclusions in the past from a higher angle, unified various skills of solving infinitesimal problems since ancient Greece into two common algorithms-differential and integral, and established the reciprocal relationship between these two operations, thus completing the most critical step in the invention of calculus, providing the most effective tool for the development of modern science and opening up a new era of mathematics. Newton did not publish the research results of calculus in time. He may have studied calculus earlier than Leibniz, but Leibniz adopted a more reasonable expression, and his works on calculus were published earlier than Newton. Between Newton and Leibniz, when arguing about who is the founder of this subject, it actually caused an uproar. This quarrel lasted for a long time among their students, supporters and mathematicians, which caused the long-term opposition between European continent mathematicians and British mathematicians. British mathematics was closed to the outside world for a period of time, limited by national prejudice, and too rigidly adhered to Newton's "flow counting", so the development of mathematics fell behind for a whole hundred years. 1707, Newton's algebra lecture notes were compiled and published, named "General Arithmetic". He mainly discussed the basis of algebra and its application in solving various problems. This book states the basic concepts and operations of algebra, explains how to turn various problems into algebraic equations with a large number of examples, and deeply discusses the roots and properties of equations, thus achieving fruitful results in equation theory. For example, he draws the relationship between the roots of equations and their discriminant, and points out that the power sum of the roots of equations can be determined by using the coefficients of equations, that is, Newton's power sum formula. Newton contributed to both analytic geometry and synthetic geometry. In Analytic Geometry published by 1736, he introduced the center of curvature, gave the concept of closed line circle (or curve circle), and put forward the curvature formula and the curvature calculation method of curve. And summed up many of my own research results into a monograph "Counting Cubic Curves", which was published in 1704. In addition, his mathematical work involves numerical analysis, probability theory, elementary number theory and many other fields.

binomial theorem

1665, Newton, who was only 22 years old, discovered the binomial theorem, which is an essential step for the all-round development of calculus. Binomial theorem is widely used in combinatorial theory, higher power, higher arithmetic progression summation and difference methods. Promotion form

Binomial series expansion is a powerful tool to study series theory, function theory, mathematical analysis and equation theory. Today, we will find that this method is only applicable to the case where n is a positive integer. When n is a positive integer of 1, 2, 3, ..., the series ends at n+ 1 If n is not a positive integer, the series will not end, and this method is not applicable. But you know, Leibniz introduced the word function in 1694. In the early stage of calculus, it is the most effective method to treat transcendental function with the level of transcendental function.

Create calculus

Newton's most outstanding achievement in mathematics was the creation of calculus. His outstanding achievement is to unify all kinds of special skills to solve infinitesimal problems since ancient Greece into two general algorithms-differential and integral, and establish the reciprocal relationship between these two operations. For example, area calculation can be regarded as the inverse process of finding tangent. At that time, Leibniz had just put forward a research report on calculus, which triggered a debate on the patent right of calculus invention until Leibniz died. Later generations think that Newton put forward the concept of calculus earlier, but Leibniz's method is more perfect. In the method of calculus, Newton's extremely important contribution is that he not only clearly saw, but also boldly used the methodology provided by algebra, which is much superior to geometry. He replaced the geometric methods of cavalieri, Gregory, Huygens and Barrow with algebraic method, and completed the algebra of integral. Since then, mathematics has gradually shifted from the subject of feeling to the subject of thinking. In the early days of calculus, because there was no solid theoretical foundation, it was studied by some people who like to think. This led to the famous second mathematical crisis. This problem was not solved until the limit theory was established in19th century.

Equation theory and variational method

Newton also made a classical contribution to algebra, and his generalized arithmetic greatly promoted the theory of equations. He found that the imaginary roots of real polynomials must appear in pairs, and found the upper bound law of polynomial roots. He expressed the sum formula of the roots of polynomials by using the coefficients of polynomials, and gave a generalization of Cartesian sign rule that limits the number of imaginary roots of real polynomials. Newton also designed a method to find the logarithm of the approximate values of the real roots of numerical equations and transcendental equations. The modification of this method is now called Newton method. Newton also made great discoveries in the field of mechanics, which is a science to explain the motion of objects. newton

The first law of motion was discovered by Galileo. This law shows that if an object is at rest or moving in a straight line at a constant speed, it will remain at rest or continue to move in a straight line at a constant speed as long as there is no external force. This law, also known as the law of inertia, describes a property of force: force can make an object move from rest to motion, from motion to rest, and can also make an object change from one form of motion to another. This is the so-called Newton's first law. The most important problem in mechanics is how objects move under similar circumstances. Newton's second law solved this problem; This law is considered to be the most important basic law in classical physics. Newton's second law quantitatively describes that force can change the motion of an object. Indicates the time change rate of speed (i.e. acceleration A is directly proportional to force F, but inversely proportional to the mass of the object, i.e. a=F/m or F = Ma). The greater the force, the greater the acceleration; The greater the mass, the smaller the acceleration. Both force and acceleration have magnitude and direction. Acceleration is caused by force, and the direction is the same as force; If several forces act on an object, the resultant force will produce acceleration. The second law is the most important, and all the basic equations of power can be derived from it by calculus. In addition, Newton formulated the third law based on these two laws. Newton's third law points out that the interaction between two objects is always equal in size and opposite in direction. For two objects in direct contact, this law is easier to understand. The downward pressure of the book on the sub-table is equal to the upward support of the table on the book, that is, the action is equal to the reaction. So is gravity. The force that an airplane in flight pulls up the earth is numerically equal to the force that the earth pulls down the airplane. Newton's laws of motion are widely used in science and dynamics.

Newton's law of motion

Newton's law of motion is the general name of the three laws of motion in physics proposed by isaac newton, and it is regarded as the basis of classical physics. Newton's first law (law of inertia: all objects always keep moving in a straight line or at rest without any external force until an external force forces them to change this state. -it clarifies the relationship between force and motion, and puts forward the concept of inertia), "Newton's second law (the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the resultant force F acting on the object, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object, and the direction of acceleration is the same as that of the resultant force. Formula: F=kma (when the unit of m is kg and the unit of a is m/s2, k= 1) Newton's third law (the acting force and reaction force between two objects on the same line are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction). )"

Optical contribution

Before Newton, Mozi, Bacon, Da Vinci and others all studied optical phenomena. The law of reflection is one of the optical laws that people have long known. When modern science rose, Galileo discovered a "new universe" through a telescope, which shocked the world. Dutch mathematician Hans sneer first discovered the law of refraction of light. Descartes put forward the particle theory of light ... Newton, Hooke and Huygens, who were almost contemporary with him, studied optics with great interest and enthusiasm like Galileo and Descartes. 1666, when Newton was on vacation at home, he got a prism, and he made a famous dispersion experiment with this prism. After a beam of sunlight passes through a prism, it is decomposed into several color spectral bands. Newton blocked the light of other colors with a slit baffle, and only let the light of one color pass through the second prism, resulting in only the light of the same color. In this way, he found that white light is composed of different colors of light, which is the first major contribution. Newton telescope

In order to verify this discovery, Newton tried to combine several different monochromatic lights into white light, and calculated the refractive index of different colors of light, which accurately explained the dispersion phenomenon. The mystery of the color of matter has been solved. It turns out that the color of matter is caused by the different reflectivity and refractive index of different colors of light on the object. In A.D. 1672, Newton published his research results in the Journal of Philosophy of the Royal Society, which was his first paper. Many people study optics in order to improve refractive telescopes. Newton discovered the composition of white light and thought that the dispersion phenomenon of refractive telescope lenses could not be eliminated (later, some people eliminated the dispersion phenomenon with lenses made of glass with different refractive indexes), so he designed and manufactured reflective telescopes. Newton was not only good at mathematical calculation, but also able to make all kinds of experimental equipment and do fine experiments by himself. In order to make a telescope, he designed a grinding and polishing machine and tested various grinding materials. 1668, he made the first prototype of reflective telescope, which is the second largest contribution. 167 1 year, Newton presented the improved reflective telescope to the royal society, which made him famous and was elected as a member of the royal society. Reflecting telescope's invention laid the foundation of modern large-scale optical astronomical telescope. At the same time, Newton also carried out a lot of observation experiments and mathematical calculations, such as studying the abnormal refraction phenomenon of glacier stone discovered by Huygens, the color phenomenon of soap bubbles discovered by Hooke, the optical phenomenon of Newton's ring and so on. Newton also put forward the "particle theory" of light, thinking that light is formed by particles and takes the fastest straight-line motion path. His "particle theory" and Huygens' "wave theory" later formed two basic theories about light. In addition, he also made Newton color wheel and other optical instruments.

Build a mechanical building

Newton is a master of classical mechanical theory. He systematically summarized the work of Galileo, Kepler and Huygens, and got the famous laws of gravity and Newton's three laws of motion. Before Newton, astronomy was the most prominent subject. But why do planets have to orbit the sun according to certain rules? Astronomers cannot fully explain this problem. The discovery of gravity shows that the movements of stars in the sky and objects on the ground are governed by the same law-mechanical law. Long before Newton discovered the law of gravity, many scientists had seriously considered this problem. For example, Kepler realized that there must be a force at work that makes the planet move along an elliptical orbit. He thinks this force is similar to magnetic force, just as a magnet attracts iron. 1659, Huygens found that a centripetal force was needed to keep the object moving in a circular orbit by studying the movement of the pendulum. Hooke and others thought it was gravity, and tried to deduce the relationship between gravity and distance. 1664, Hooke found that when comets approached the sun, their orbits were curved due to the sun's gravity. 1673, huygens deduced the law of centripetal force; 1679, Hooke and Halley deduced from centripetal force law and Kepler's third law that the gravitational force for maintaining planetary motion is inversely proportional to the square of distance. Newton himself recalled that around 1666, he had considered the problem of gravity when he lived in his hometown. The most famous saying is that Newton often sits in the garden for a while during holidays. Once, as happened many times in the past, an apple fell from the tree ... The accidental landing of an apple was a turning point in the history of human thought, which opened the thinking of people sitting in the garden and caused him to think deeply: What is the reason why almost all objects are attracted by the center of the earth? Newton mused. Finally, he discovered the gravity which is of epoch-making significance to mankind. Newton's genius lies in that he solved the mathematical argument problem that Hooke and others could not solve. 1679, Hooke wrote to Newton and asked him if he could prove that the planet moves in an elliptical orbit according to the law of centripetal force and the law that gravity is inversely proportional to the square of distance. Newton didn't answer the question. 1685, when Harley visited Newton, Newton had discovered the law of universal gravitation: there is gravitation between two objects, which is inversely proportional to the square of the distance and directly proportional to the product of the masses of the two objects. At that time, accurate data such as radius of the earth and the distance between the sun and the earth were available for calculation. Newton proved to Harley that the gravity of the earth is the centripetal force that makes the moon move around the earth, and also proved that the planetary motion conforms to Kepler's three laws of motion under the action of solar gravity. At the urging of Harley, at the end of 1686, Newton wrote an epoch-making masterpiece, Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. The Royal Society is short of funds to publish this book. Later, one of the greatest works in the history of science was published in 1687 with Harley's support. In this book, Newton not only demonstrated the law of gravitation mathematically, but also established classical mechanics as a complete and rigorous system, unifying celestial mechanics and ground object mechanics, starting from the basic concepts of mechanics (mass, momentum, inertia and force) and basic laws (three laws of motion).

Johannes kepler, the founder of Kepler's law of planetary motion, was born in Wildstadt, a small town in Germany, in 157 1, which happened to be the 28th year after Copernicus published "On the Movement of the Celestial Sphere". In this masterpiece, Copernicus put forward the theory that planets revolve around the sun rather than around the earth. Kepler studied at the University of Tubingen, and received his bachelor's degree from 65438 to 0588, and his master's degree three years later. At that time, most scientists refused to accept Copernicus' Heliocentrism. When studying at Tiebingen University, he heard Heliocentrism's logical exposition and soon believed it. "

After graduating from the University of Tiebingen, Kepler worked as a professor at the Graz Institute for several years. During this period, he completed his first astronomical work (1596). Although the theory put forward by Kepler in this book is completely wrong, it clearly shows his mathematical talent and creative thinking, so the great astronomer tycho brahe invited him to be his assistant at the observatory near Prague. Kepler accepted this invitation, and in June of 1600, 1 joined the ranks of Taixiu. Tycho died the following year. In recent months, Kepler left a very good impression on people. Soon, Rudolph, the Emperor of Saint Rome, appointed him as a royal mathematician to succeed Tycho. Kepler remained in this position for the rest of his life. As tycho brahe's successor, Kepler carefully studied Tycho's careful observation of the planets over the years. Tycho was the last great astronomer before the invention of the telescope, and he was also the most careful and accurate observer in the history of the world, so his records were extremely valuable. Kepler believes that through careful mathematical analysis of Tycho's records, we can determine which theory of planetary motion is correct: Copernicus Heliocentrism, the ancient Ptolemaic geocentric theory, may be the third theory put forward by Tycho himself. However, after years of painstaking mathematical calculations, Kepler found that Tycho's observation did not conform to the three theories, and his hopes were dashed. Finally, Kepler realized this problem: like Tycho, Laguerre Copernicus and all classical astronomers, he assumed that the orbits of planets were composed of circles or compound circles. But in fact, the orbit of the planet is not circular, but elliptical. /kloc-in 0/600, Kepler published the book Dream, which is a pure fantasy work about the communication between human beings and people on the moon. There are many incredible things in the book, such as jet propulsion, zero gravity state, orbital inertia, spacesuit and so on. People still don't understand how Kepler thought about these high-tech achievements nearly 400 years ago. Although Kepler's book is pure fantasy, it must have some background sources, such as Pythagoras' words or ancient Greek mythology. Just after finding the basic solution, Kepler still had to spend several months making complicated and lengthy calculations to confirm that his theory was consistent with Tycho's observation. He put forward his first two laws of planetary motion in his magnum opus New Astronomy published in 1609. The first law of planetary motion holds that every planet revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit, and the sun is located at a focus of this elliptical orbit. The second law of planetary motion holds that the closer a planet is to the sun, the faster it moves. The speed of the planet changes in such a way that the line between the planet and the sun sweeps the same area at equal time. Ten years later, Kepler published his third law of planetary motion: the farther a planet is from the sun, the longer its running period; The square of the operation period is proportional to the cube of the distance from the sun. Kepler's law gives a complete and correct description of the motion of planets around the sun and solves a basic problem in astronomy. The answer to this question puzzled even geniuses like Copernicus and Galileo. At that time, Kepler failed to explain the reasons for running in orbit according to its laws, and it was not until the late 7th century/kloc-0 that isaac newton made it clear. From Kepler's research on the nature of this movement, we can see that the law of universal gravitation has taken shape. Kepler has proved in the proof of universal gravitation that if the orbit of a planet is circular, then it conforms to the law of universal gravitation. If the orbit is elliptical, Kepler didn't prove it. Newton later proved this with complicated calculus and geometric methods. Newton once said, "If I see farther than others, it is because I stand on the shoulders of giants." Kepler is undoubtedly one of the giants he refers to. Kepler's contribution to astronomy is almost comparable to Copernicus's. In fact, in some respects, Kepler's achievements even left a deeper impression on people. He is more innovative. He faces considerable difficulties in mathematics. At that time, mathematics was far less developed than it is now, and there was no computer to reduce Kepler's computational burden. From the point of view of the importance of Kepler's achievements, it is surprising that his achievements were almost ignored at first, even by such a great scientist as Galileo (Galileo's neglect of Kepler's law is particularly surprising, because there is correspondence between them, Kepler's achievements will help Galileo refute Ptolemy's theory). If others can't understand the significance of Kepler's achievements, he will understand it himself. When he couldn't restrain his great joy, he wrote: "I am addicted to divine ecstasy ... my book has been finished." My contemporaries won't read it, but my descendants will read it-it doesn't matter. It may take a hundred years to get a reader, just as God waited 6,000 years to make a person understand his works. " But decades have passed, and the meaning of Kepler's law has gradually become clear in the scientific community. In fact, in the late17th century, there was a main argument supporting Newton's theory, that is, Kepler's law can be derived from Newton's theory, and conversely, Newton's law of gravity can be accurately derived from Kepler's law as long as Newton's law of motion exists. However, this requires more advanced mathematical technology, which was not available in Kepler's era. Even in the case of backward technology, Kepler can judge that planetary motion is controlled by gravity from the sun with keen insight. Kepler not only invented the laws of planetary motion, but also made many small contributions to astronomy. He also made important contributions to optics. Unfortunately, he felt sorry for his private affairs in his later years. At that time, Germany began to fall into the chaos of the "Thirty Years War", and few people could hide in Xanadu. One of the problems he encountered was getting paid. The emperor of the Holy Roman Empire paid his salary discontentedly even in prosperous times. During the war, Kepler's salary was delayed. Kepler was married twice and had twelve children. Such financial difficulties are really serious. Another problem is that his mother was arrested for witchcraft at 1620. Kepler spent a lot of time trying to get his mother released without torture, and he finally achieved his goal. Kepler died in regensburg, Bavaria on 1630. During the turmoil of the Thirty Years' War, his grave was quickly destroyed. But it turns out that his law of planetary motion is a monument that lasts longer than any stone tablet.

An unhappy life

157 1 65438+February 27th, Kepler was born in a poor family in Weill, Germany. His grandfather was a famous local aristocrat. But when Kepler was born, his family had declined, and the whole family lived by running a small hotel. Kepler is a premature baby with poor constitution. He suffered great misfortune in his childhood. At the age of four, he suffered from smallpox and scarlet fever. Although he narrowly escaped death, his body was seriously damaged, his vision was weak and his hand was half disabled. But Kepler has a tenacious enterprising spirit. 12 years old, entered the temple to study. He helps his parents manage the hotel after school, but he has been studying hard and his grades are always among the best. 1587, Kepler entered the University of Tiebingen. At this time, new misfortune befell him again. His father died and his mother was accused of witchcraft and imprisoned. Unfortunately, life didn't stop him from learning. On the contrary, he works harder. During his college study, he was influenced by stebbing, a professor of astronomy, and became a supporter of Copernicus's theory. At the same time, his belief in theology was shaken. Kepler often argued with his classmates in college and clearly supported Copernicus' position. After graduating from university, Kepler got a master's degree in astronomy and was hired as a teacher by the Protestant Theological Seminary in Graz. Later, because the school was controlled by the Catholic Church, Kepler left the seminary and went to Prague to concentrate on astronomical observation with the outstanding astronomical observer Tycho. It was Tycho who discovered Kepler's talent. With the help and guidance of Digu, Kepler has made great progress in his study. Although Kepler has poor eyesight, he has done a lot of observation work. 1On September 30th, 604, a new star appeared near Ophiuchus, which was brighter than Jupiter at its brightest. Kepler observed this new star for 17 months and published the observation results. Historically known as Kepler nova (this is a supernova in the Milky Way) 1607. He observed a big comet, which was later Halley's comet. After Tycho's death, Kepler took his place and was hired as the emperor's mathematician. But the emperor was very stingy with him, giving him only half of Tycho's salary and often defaulting on it. His meager income is not enough to support his elderly mother, wife and children, and his life is very difficult. However, Kepler never stopped his scientific research. In this difficult environment, he made numerous achievements in astronomy.