New York Subway History

The historical development of the New York subway

On October 27, 1904, George McClelland, the then mayor of New York, held the joystick in his hand and started the New York subway's maiden journey. , it took 26 minutes to complete the city’s first subway line, which is 9.1 miles long and passes through 28 stations.

In 1953, a working model of a conveyor system was proposed to replace the short-distance shuttle trains between Times Square and Grand Central Terminal, but this was never realized.

In 1994, the New York City Transit Authority launched a new ticket system, MetroCard, to replace tokens. In 1997, a free transfer within 2 hours was added.

In 2002, 4.5 million passengers used the subway to commute every working day.

Tokens entered history in 2003. In the same year, the Transportation Department raised the basic fare to US$2, which triggered many protests.

In 2005, the monthly ticket price was increased while the basic fare remained unchanged. The planned Second Avenue Line of the New York City Subway includes a plan to modify the IRT route.

After the London subway bombing in 2005, the New York City Police Department began randomly checking passengers' luggage in the New York subway, which also triggered controversy over racial discrimination.

In 2014, the total passenger flow of the New York subway exceeded 1.75 billion, with an average daily passenger flow of about 5.6 million on weekdays, an average of 3.2 million daily passengers on Saturdays, and an average of 2.7 million daily passengers on Sundays. Thousands of people. Passenger traffic continues to rise. On September 23, 2014, more than 6.1 million people used the New York subway system, breaking the record for the highest single-day passenger traffic since 1985. What is the history of the development of the Underground?

London Underground The London Underground has a long history and is the world's first underground system.

Except for some routes, the tubes the trains travel through are narrow, and the carriages are narrower and shorter than standard railway carriages. Many station platforms and passages are arched, like tubes, called tubes.

Some older subway stations have poor equipment, dim lighting, and some peeling walls and ceilings. In addition to being cramped, London Underground carriages are not air-conditioned.

The main ventilation in the carriage comes from the windows of the passage doors between the trucks, or the small windows of the windows next to the trucks. The London Underground is unstable and noisy.

The passage between the trucks is exposed, but it is protected by the door. There is a notice on the door that it cannot be used while driving. If you imagine a large number of passengers standing between the subway cards in Hong Kong, you can't imagine it in London.

Another very special thing about the London Underground (or other railways) is that its doors have opening and closing buttons. If you don't press the button to open the door, the door may not open. Of course, the London Underground also has its benefits.

The London Underground network extends in all directions, and there are sufficient station instructions and carriage announcements. You generally don’t have to worry about getting lost when using the subway to get to your destination. The Paris Metro has the most convenient transportation in the world.

The Paris subway has a long history and unique style, like a deep underground museum. Since the first line was opened in 1900, it currently has 14 subway lines and 5 suburban express lines passing through the Paris region. Lines (RER lines A, B, C, D, E), with a total of nearly 300 stations, covering Paris and surrounding cities like a dense network. The subway is the most convenient means of transportation in Paris. You can reach anywhere in Paris by taking the subway, which is simple and convenient.

The New York Subway The New York Subway does not have the earliest history of the subways in Paris, France and London, England, but it is the largest urban underground railway in contemporary times: 722 miles in length, carrying 4.5 million passengers every day. The New York City subway was built starting in 1900. Each route is 55 feet wide and 15 feet deep.

At that time, two private companies, Interborough Rapid Transit pany (IRT) and Brooklyn-Manhattan Transit pany (BMT), dominated. In 1953, the subway fare was 15 cents.

In 1966, the subway was destroyed. Beginning in 1968, New York State began to take over the subway. In 1982, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (Metropolitan Transportation Authority? Juanity) took control of the subway system.

Beijing Subway Historical Records On October 1, 1969, my country’s first underground railway, the Beijing Subway, was completed and opened to traffic. Many people who have been to Beijing, the capital, know that there is a road built just tens of meters underground in Beijing, and that is the Beijing Subway.

In a tunnel extending in all directions, electric trams are traveling at lightning speed. This is the first urban underground railway designed, constructed and managed by New China.

Line Characteristics of the New York City Subway

The New York City Subway is the urban rail transit system of New York City in the United States. It is owned by the New York City Government and is affiliated with the New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA). ), an affiliate of the New York Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA). The New York City Subway is one of the oldest urban rail transit systems in the world and a member of the International Consortium of Metro Systems (CoMET). The New York City Subway provides 24-hour service year-round.

Calculated by the number of stations, the New York City Subway is the largest urban rail transit system in the world, with 468 stations in use (this data double-counts transfer stations, if not double-counted it would be 421 ). The stations cover Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens and the Bronx in New York. In addition, the Staten Island Railroad on Staten Island is not officially recognized as part of the New York subway system, and the railway does not have any tracks related to the New York subway. The system is connected, and passengers who want to travel to other parts of New York City must take the Staten Island Ferry or bus. In addition, the Port Authority Trans-Hudson (PATH) railway system in Manhattan and the AirTrain JFK railway in Queens can use the New York Subway's electronic toll collection system. MetroCard, but these two rail systems are not part of the New York subway system and do not accept free transfers.

The New York City Subway is also one of the longest urban rail transit systems in the world. The system has a total of 373 kilometers (232 miles) of train service on 1,056 kilometers (656 miles) of operating track. If other unoperated tracks are included, the total length is 1,355 kilometers ( 842 miles).

Calculated by annual passenger flow, the New York subway system is the busiest urban rail transit system in the United States and Americas, and the seventh busiest urban rail transit system in the world, ranking behind the Beijing Subway, Tokyo Subway, and Shanghai After rail transit, Moscow Metro, South Korea Metropolitan Electric Railway and Guangzhou Metro.

With the exception of the New York City Subway G Line, the New York City Subway Franklin Avenue Connection, and the New York City Subway Rockaway Park Connection, all New York City Subway train services pass through Manhattan. The New York subway system outside of Manhattan mostly consists of overhead sections, embankment sections and surface sections. Although it is called a "subway", about 40% of the tracks in the New York subway system are not underground. Some routes in the New York subway system have express trains and local services. Such routes usually have three or four tracks. Normally, the tracks on both sides are used by local trains and the middle track is used by express trains. Express trains only stop at major transfer stations and terminals. Safety incident in New York subway

On the morning of May 2, 2014, a New York subway train carrying approximately 1,000 passengers suffered a serious derailment, resulting in 19 injuries, 4 of which were serious. Thousands of passengers were evacuated. The New York Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) said that at about 10:30 on the morning of the 2nd, a train bound for Manhattan and Brooklyn on the New York Subway F Line derailed underground. The subway train was carrying about 1,000 passengers when it suddenly derailed about 1,200 feet south of the 65th Street subway station in Queens, New York. The train had eight carriages, of which the six middle carriages fell off the track, while the front and rear carriages were still on the track. The New York subway system has a long history, with a history of 110 years. It is also one of the busiest public rail transit systems in the world. As of the time of the accident on May 2, approximately 5.5 million people traveled by subway in New York every working day. .

On May 4, 2014, investigators said they did not yet know the cause of the train derailment, but officials said the driver of the train would be tested for drugs and alcohol. There is also speculation that a mechanical failure in the subway track or train may have caused the train to derail. Records show that this section of subway track has been in use for less than 30 years.

Tom Prendergast, chairman and CEO of the New York Metropolitan Transportation Authority, promised that day that a "thorough and comprehensive investigation" into the cause of the train derailment would be conducted. There was no indication that the derailment that day was related to a terrorist attack, but New York police were clearly on high alert. That afternoon, at a subway terminal in Queens, New York, two police officers armed with live ammunition were on duty. A Transportation Department staff member was carrying a huge backpack and wearing a fluorescent vest standing at the subway entrance. A brief introduction to the history of New York

◎ Early History In the pre-colonial period, the area where New York is now located was inhabited by the Algonquian tribe.

The Lenape were one of the people who lived in Staten Island, western Long Island (including present-day Brooklyn and Queens), Manhattan and the Lower Hudson River Valley (including Brown kes area).

◎ Discovery of New York (1492-1609 AD) After Columbus discovered the American continent in 1492, colonists from various European countries came to establish colonial trading points one after another. A free port gradually formed here, which was the predecessor of New York.

[8] In 1524, Italian Giovanni da Verrazzano came to the bayou area and became the first European to visit New York in history. [8] da Verrazzano was an explorer from Florence who was loyal to France.

He rode the Dauphine into today's New York Harbor, declared the land French and named it New Angoulême. In 1602, the Netherlands sent Henry Hudson to North America to find a new paradise. In 1609, he arrived in New York Bay and went north along the river. The following year, Hudson returned to the Netherlands with native products and furs from North America. Many Dutch merchants owned this area. The land rich in resources aroused great interest and settled here. The Dutch named it "New Nederland".

[1] The later famous Hudson River was named after him. ◎ The birth of Manhattan (AD 1624-AD 1626) In 1624, the Dutch established a fur trading post on Governors Island, and Europeans began to officially settle permanently in New Netherland.

In 1625, Amsterdam began construction on Manhattan Island, later called "New Amsterdam" (Nieuw Amsterdam). In 1626, the Dutch colonial governor Peter Minuit purchased Manhattan Island from the local Lenape people for 60 guilders (approximately $1,000 in 2006).

A trading post was established and the place was named "New Amsterdam" after the capital of the Netherlands, Amsterdam. The Dutch established their homes here and took root, with about 300 residents. [8] ◎ The birth of New York (1651 AD - 1770 AD) The Anglo-Dutch War broke out in 1651, the civil war between the indigenous people and the diseases brought by the European colonists. New Amsterdam is located in today's Lower Manhattan. New Amsterdam is located in today's Lower Manhattan. The number of Lenape people decreased significantly between 1660 and 1670.

In 1664, when the British fleet arrived here, the Dutch knew they were unable to fight it. Peter Stuyvesant, the governor of New Netherland, surrendered and handed over New Amsterdam. King Charles II of England gave this place to his younger brother, so the king's brother moved his territory from Yorkshire, England to New Amsterdam, and changed the name of the place to "New York", that is, "New York" , its name comes from Yorkshire, England, and the word "新" is added in front of it to show the difference. Later, the Chinese transliteration "New York" got its name.

In exchange for the Indonesian island of Ren with the Netherlands. [8] The British acquired the territory of "New Amsterdam" and named it "New York", which became a British colony.

In the second half of the 17th century, New York's population increased and it became a commercial center. Rich agricultural products were exported and industrial products were imported, which promoted the development of the local economy. In the absence of labor, by 1770 By 2000, the Lenape population had dropped to 200 people. [8] New York became the base of the black slave market. Human trafficking was quite prevalent, but it also planted the seeds of future anti-black slavery in the United States.

[1] ◎ Declaration of Independence (1773 AD - 1775 AD) The new immigrants who immigrated here from the United Kingdom established a new system different from the British mainland. The Battle of Long Island established the Thirteenth Congress of North America. They originally thought they could live and work here in peace and contentment, but their dreams were shattered because of the financial difficulties of the British government. The people in the colonies were heavily taxed, which further deepened the colonial people's determination to be independent. In 1773, the "Tea Incident" became the trigger for the War of Independence. The colonial people launched the war with the slogan "Give me liberty or give me death."

On July 4, 1776, Thomas Jefferson held the Continental Congress in Philadelphia and issued the Declaration of Independence. New York also became the place for a decisive battle between the British and American troops. Due to the inability to withstand the strong attack of the British army, New York , New York once again fell into the hands of the British army, and the United States turned to France for help. On October 17, 1781, the U.S.-French coalition achieved its final victory, and New York returned to the embrace of the U.S. military.

[1] ◎ The War of Independence (1776-1783 AD) The largest battle in the American Revolutionary War, the Battle of Long Island, was fought in August 1776 in what is today Brooklyn. The United States' defeat in this battle reduced military conflicts in New York, and the city became the British military and political center in North America.

At this time, New York became a refuge for loyalists and escaped slaves (Britain promised to grant freedom to escaped slaves who joined their side). At least 10,000 escaped slaves poured into the city when the British occupied New York. On September 11, 1776, British and American representatives met on Staten Island. This was the only time during the war that the two sides attempted to resolve the conflict peacefully.

The American representatives included Benjamin Franklin, and the British representatives included Lord Howe. Shortly after the British occupied New York, a fire broke out in New York and nearly a quarter of the city's buildings were destroyed.

At the end of 1776, the United States of America became independent. In 1781, Britain and the United States signed the Treaty of Paris. Britain recognized the independence of the United States and divided the land east of the Mississippi River to the United States. [1] On Evacuation Day in 1783, the British withdrew from New York (New York was also the last British port to evacuate) and settled 3,000 freed slaves in Nova Scotia.

Other freed slaves went to England and the Caribbean. ◎ Rapid rise in status (1785-1790) In 1785, the Confederate Conference designated New York as the capital of the United States.

New York is the last U.S. capital under the Articles of Confederation and the first U.S. capital under the U.S. Constitution. In 1789, the first president of the United States, George Washington, was sworn in at the Federal Hall on Wall Street.

The same location also convened the first Congress and the Supreme Court of the United States to draft the United States Bill of Rights. In 1790, New York surpassed Philadelphia to become the largest city in the United States.

◎ The Slavery Abolition Act (1799-1840) Under the "Gradual Abolition of Slavery Act" promulgated by New York State in 1799, children of slave mothers will be born as indentured labor until they are twenty-five years old. Freedom is available. those who liberated and those who escaped after the Revolutionary War. What is the history of the development of underground railways?

The history of the development of subways in Europe and the United States Author: Anonymous Reading: 327 Time: 2006-3-12 Article entry: Jingxiang Editor: Jingxiang London Underground The London Underground has a long history and is the world's largest The first subway system.

Except for some routes, the tubes the trains travel through are narrow, and the carriages are narrower and shorter than standard railway carriages. Many station platforms and passages are arched, like tubes, called tubes.

Some older subway stations have poor equipment, dim lighting, and some peeling walls and ceilings. In addition to being cramped, London Underground carriages are not air-conditioned.

The main ventilation in the carriage comes from the windows of the passage doors between the trucks, or the small windows of the windows next to the trucks. The London Underground is unstable and noisy.

The passage between the trucks is exposed, but it is protected by the door. There is a notice on the door that it cannot be used while driving. If you imagine a large number of passengers standing between the subway cards in Hong Kong, you can't imagine it in London.

Another very special thing about the London Underground (or other railways) is that its doors have opening and closing buttons. If you don't press the button to open the door, the door may not open. Of course, the London Underground also has its benefits.

The London Underground network extends in all directions, and station instructions and carriage announcements are sufficient. You generally don’t have to worry about getting lost when using the subway to get to your destination. Paris Metro The transportation facilities in Paris are among the best in the world.

The Paris subway has a long history and unique style, like a deep underground museum. Since the first line was opened in 1900, it currently has 14 subway lines and 5 suburban express lines passing through the Paris region. Lines (RER lines A, B, C, D, E), with a total of nearly 300 stations, covering Paris and surrounding cities like a dense network. The subway is the most convenient means of transportation in Paris. You can reach anywhere in Paris by taking the subway, which is simple and convenient.

New York Subway The New York Subway does not have the earliest history of the subways in Paris, France and London, England, but it is the largest urban underground railway in contemporary times: 722 miles in length, carrying 4.5 million passengers every day. The New York City subway was built starting in 1900. Each route is 55 feet wide and 15 feet deep.

At that time, two private companies, Interborough Rapid Transit pany (IRT) and Brooklyn-Manhattan Transit pany (BMT), dominated. In 1953, the subway fare was 15 cents.

In 1966, the subway was destroyed. Beginning in 1968, New York State began to take over the subway. In 1982, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (Metropolitan Transportation Authority? Juanity) took control of the subway system.

Historical records of Beijing Subway On October 1, 1969, my country's first underground railway, the Beijing Subway, was completed and opened to traffic. Many people who have been to Beijing, the capital, know that there is a road built just tens of meters underground in Beijing, and that is the Beijing Subway.

In a tunnel extending in all directions, electric trams are traveling at lightning speed. This is the first urban underground railway designed, constructed and managed by New China. The determination to build the Beijing subway actually first emerged in the 1950s.

In 1965, a construction report was submitted to Chairman Mao’s desk. Chen Xinhuo, former political commissar of the 12th Railway Division. Chairman Mao’s important instructions in the report were careful design and careful construction.

During the construction process, there will definitely be many mistakes and failures, so be sure to correct them at any time. The transportation capacity of the subway is very large. A subway, for example, the Beijing Subway, can carry 24,000 to 25,000 people per hour in one direction during peak hours.

This subway can match the transportation capacity of more than a dozen bus transportation lines on the ground. Following the completion of the Beijing Subway, China has built subways in major cities such as Tianjin, Shanghai, and Guangzhou.

The subway urban rail transit system is defined as the following five conditions: It must be a mass transit system, it must be located within the city, it must be powered by electricity, most of it must be independent of other transportation systems (such as roads and other railways) The trains must be frequent. Most of the urban rail transit systems in the city center are laid in tunnels excavated underground. These systems may also be called underground railways, or simply subways or subways.

In Taiwan, it is called Mass Rapid Transit system (MRT). In cities in mainland China, urban rail transit systems built on the ground or on viaducts are often called "light rail."

However, in the professional field, the difference between "light rail" and "subway" lies in the difference in transportation capacity. "Light rail" refers to an urban rail transit system with a one-way transportation capacity of less than 20,000 people per hour, while "light rail" refers to an urban rail transit system with a one-way transportation capacity of less than 20,000 people per hour. "Subway" refers to an urban rail transit system with a one-way transport capacity of more than 20,000 people per hour. Since trams use the same road surface as other means of transportation, they are usually not included in the urban rail transit system.

However, with the development of modern public transportation technology, more and more cities are adopting a hybrid approach of trams and light rails, setting up separate rails in places where the space is loose, and in places where the space is tight. In local areas, public roads are used, and stations can be set up flexibly according to specific conditions. The boundary between the two is becoming increasingly blurred. Purpose The vast majority of urban rail transit systems are used to carry passengers commuting within the city, and in many cases urban rail transit systems are used as the backbone of urban transportation.

Chicago in the United States once had an underground railway used to carry goods; London, England also had an underground railway specifically designed to carry mail. However, the two railways were decommissioned in 1959 and 2003 respectively.

During wars (such as World War II), the MTR was also used as factories or air-raid shelters. The subway systems of many countries (such as South Korea) have taken the possibility of war into account when designing them. Therefore, both the depth of the railway and crowd control have taken into account the needs of daily transportation and national defense.

In addition, urban rail transit systems are also used as indicators to demonstrate a country's economic, social and technological superiority. For example, the underground railway system of the former Soviet Union was famous for its ornate station decorations, and the underground railway system of Pyongyang, the capital of North Korea, also had magnificent decorations.

Construction of Underground Railway Digging tunnels underground is not an easy task and requires a huge amount of money and time, at least several years to complete. Cut and backfill The simplest and most straightforward method is cut and fill (cut and backfill).

This method usually involves digging a large hole in the street and then building a tunnel structure underneath. The road surface will be repaved only after the tunnel has sufficient bearing capacity. In addition to the roads being dug, other underground structures such as electric wires, etc. A brief introduction to the history of New York

◎ Early History During the pre-colonial period, the area where New York is now located was inhabited by the Algonquian tribe.

The Lenape were one of the people who lived in Staten Island, western Long Island (including present-day Brooklyn and Queens), Manhattan and the Lower Hudson River Valley (including Brown kes area). ◎ Discovery of New York (1492-1609 AD) After Columbus discovered the American continent in 1492, colonists from various European countries came one after another to establish colonial trading points. A free port gradually formed here, which was the predecessor of New York.

[8] In 1524, Italian Giovanni da Verrazzano came to the bayou area and became the first European to visit New York in history. [8] da Verrazzano was an explorer from Florence, loyal to France.

He rode the Dauphine into today's New York Harbor, declared the land French and named it New Angoulême. In 1602, the Netherlands sent Henry Hudson to North America to find a new paradise. In 1609, he arrived in New York Bay and went north along the river. The following year, Hudson returned to the Netherlands with native products and furs from North America. Many Dutch merchants owned this area. The land rich in resources aroused great interest and settled here. The Dutch named it "New Nederland".

[1] The later famous Hudson River was named after him. ◎ The birth of Manhattan (1624-1626 AD) In ??1624, the Dutch established a fur trading post on Governors Island, and Europeans began to officially settle in New Netherland.

In 1625, Amsterdam began construction on Manhattan Island, later called "New Amsterdam" (Nieuw Amsterdam). In 1626, the Dutch colonial governor Peter Minuit bought Manhattan Island from the local Lenape people for 60 guilders (approximately $1,000 in 2006).

A trading post was established and the place was named "New Amsterdam" after the capital of the Netherlands, Amsterdam. The Dutch established their homes here and took root, with about 300 residents. [8] ◎ The birth of New York (1651 AD - 1770 AD) The Anglo-Dutch War broke out in 1651, the civil war between the indigenous people and the diseases brought by the European colonists. New Amsterdam is located in today's Lower Manhattan. New Amsterdam is located in today's Lower Manhattan. The number of Lenape people decreased significantly between 1660 and 1670.

In 1664, when the British fleet arrived here, the Dutch knew they were unable to fight it. Peter Stuyvesant, the governor of New Netherland, surrendered and handed over New Amsterdam. King Charles II of England gave this place to his younger brother, so the king's brother moved his territory from Yorkshire, England to New Amsterdam, and changed the name of the place to "New York", that is, "New York" , its name comes from Yorkshire, England, and the word "新" is added in front of it to show the difference. Later, the Chinese transliteration "New York" got its name.

In exchange for the Indonesian island of Ren with the Netherlands. [8] The British acquired the territory of "New Amsterdam" and named it "New York", which became a British colony.

In the second half of the 17th century, New York's population increased and it became a commercial center. Rich agricultural products were exported and industrial products were imported, which promoted the development of the local economy. In the absence of labor, by 1770 By 2001, the Lenape population had dropped to 200 people. [8] New York became the base of the black slave market. Human trafficking was quite prevalent, but it also planted the seeds of future anti-black slavery in the United States.

[1] ◎ Declaration of Independence (1773 AD - 1775 AD) New immigrants from the United Kingdom established a new system different from that of the British mainland. The Battle of Long Island established the Thirteenth Century of North America. They originally thought they could live and work here in peace and contentment, but their dreams were shattered because of the financial difficulties of the British government. The people in the colonies were heavily taxed, which further deepened the colonial people's determination to be independent. In 1773, the "Tea Incident" became the trigger for the War of Independence. The colonial people launched the war with the slogan "Give me liberty or give me death."

On July 4, 1776, Thomas Jefferson held the Continental Congress in Philadelphia and issued the Declaration of Independence. New York also became the place for a decisive battle between the British and American troops. Due to the inability to withstand the strong attack of the British army, New York , New York once again fell into the hands of the British army, and the United States turned to France for help. On October 17, 1781, the U.S.-French coalition achieved its final victory, and New York returned to the embrace of the U.S. military.

[1] ◎ The War of Independence (1776-1783 AD) The largest battle in the American Revolutionary War, the Battle of Long Island, was fought in August 1776 in what is today Brooklyn. The United States' defeat in this battle reduced military conflicts in New York, and the city became the British military and political center in North America.

At this time, New York became a refuge for loyalists and escaped slaves (the British promised to grant freedom to escaped slaves who joined their side). At least 10,000 escaped slaves poured into the city when the British occupied New York. On September 11, 1776, British and American representatives met on Staten Island. This was the only time during the war that the two sides attempted to resolve the conflict peacefully.

The American representative included Benjamin Franklin, and the British representative included Lord Howe. Shortly after the British occupied New York, a fire broke out in New York and nearly a quarter of the city's buildings were destroyed.

At the end of 1776, the United States of America became independent. In 1781, Britain and the United States signed the Treaty of Paris. Britain recognized the independence of the United States and divided the land east of the Mississippi River to the United States. [1] On Evacuation Day in 1783, the British withdrew from New York (New York was also the last British port to evacuate) and settled 3,000 freed slaves in Nova Scotia.

Other freed slaves went to England and the Caribbean. ◎ Steep rise in status (1785-1790) In 1785, the Confederate Conference designated New York as the capital of the United States.

New York is the last U.S. capital under the Articles of Confederation and the first U.S. capital under the U.S. Constitution. In 1789, the first president of the United States, George Washington, was sworn in at the Federal Hall on Wall Street.

The same location also convened the first Congress and the Supreme Court of the United States to draft the United States Bill of Rights. In 1790, New York surpassed Philadelphia to become the largest city in the United States.

◎ Slavery Abolition Act (1799-1840) Under the "Gradual Abolition of Slavery Act" promulgated by New York State in 1799, children of slave mothers were born as indentured labor until they were twenty-five years old. Freedom is available. Freedmen and escaped slaves after the Revolutionary War.