What were the main problems faced by the United States, Japan, and Russia in the mid-19th century? By what means are they resolved?

No big deal, just war and racial science~~~~~~~~

[Edit this paragraph] Overview of the 19th century

1801 to 1900 This period is called the 19th century. The most significant thing during this period was the technological and economic progress promoted by the Industrial Revolution in Western Europe and North America. In conjunction, various natural science disciplines such as physics, chemistry, biology, geology, etc. have gradually taken shape, and have affected the birth or reshaping of social sciences (including sociology, anthropology, history, etc.). But on the other hand, these industrial countries have successfully colonized most parts of the world through their powerful productivity and weapons, and have destroyed the existing social and economic systems of many ancient civilizations, such as China, India, and Turkey, through dumping, resulting in these The country was forced to "modernize." In addition, the rise of nationalism has enabled most European nations to establish their own modern countries and begin to establish and preserve their own history and culture. In terms of art, the popular classical art of the last century was gradually replaced by romanticism. Later, stimulated by the scientific and industrial revolutions, Europe began to develop towards realism, hoping to capture all aspects of real life through painting, literature, music and photography. Various situations and characters, among which Impressionism is the most famous. In society, a large number of social conflicts continued to occur, which gradually fermented the socialist trend of thought. Among them, Marxism, which deeply influenced the next century, was the most famous.

[Edit this paragraph] 19th century art

In art, the popular classical art of the last century was gradually replaced by romanticism. Later, stimulated by the scientific and industrial revolution, Europe began to Developing towards realism, hoping to capture various situations and characters in real life through painting, literature, music and photography, among which Impressionism is the most famous. In society, a large number of social conflicts continued to occur, which gradually fermented the socialist trend of thought. Among them, Marxism, which deeply influenced the next century, was the most famous.

[Edit this paragraph] Europe in the 19th century

People in industrial countries began to comprehensively explore every corner and tribe of the world. But on the other hand, evolution theory and nationalism gradually gave them a sense of superiority such as the "white man's burden", which in turn laid the groundwork for genocide in the first half of the 20th century.

[Edit this paragraph] Science and technology in the 19th century

- The popularity of trains popularized transportation.

- The automobile began to appear and developed rapidly.

- Industrialization has been further developed. The concentration of large businesses and urban residents made the working class a force to be reckoned with. Organizations such as trade unions began to emerge.

- The electric power industry began to emerge. Generators, electric motors, electric lights, telegraphs, and wireless communications were introduced one after another.

- Many chemical elements were discovered. The chemical industry began to emerge. Chemical theory is becoming increasingly perfect.

- Newtonian system reached the pinnacle of its perfection. Theorizing about electricity and heat.

- Darwin published his theory of evolution.

[Edit this paragraph] War and politics in the 19th century

-The Taiping Rebellion.

- After a series of wars and unequal treaties, China became a semi-colony. The rule of the Qing Dynasty was shaky.

- Japan has become a major power in East Asia through reforms.

- Napoleonic wars popularized nationalist and democratic ideas in Europe. At the same time, it broke many boundaries in Europe, and areas originally ruled by religious aristocrats were secularized.

- The German Empire emerged under Prussia. Italian independence. In France the feudal monarchy was finally completely abandoned.

- After the Mexican War and the Civil War, the United States basically took shape and became a powerful country in North America. Many European immigrants entered the United States.

- The proletariat in France established its own political power for the first time - the Paris Commune.

- Five major natural and man-made disasters in the 19th century

- Napoleonic wars.

- Franco-Prussian War.

- American Civil War.

- The Eight-Power Allied Forces invaded Beijing (?).

[Edit this paragraph] The Napoleonic Wars of the 19th Century

From 1793 to 1815, Napoleon I commanded the French army in a series of wars against the anti-French alliance. The battlefields are mainly on the European continent.

After the French Revolution began, European monarchies attempted armed intervention in France. France declared war on Bohemia and Hungary on April 20, 1792, declared war on Prussia on July 8, and declared war on Britain on February 1, 1793. In March, Britain, Russia, Austria, Prussia, Spain, the Netherlands, Sardinia, Naples and other countries formed the first anti-French alliance. In September 1793, Napoleon Bonaparte served as the artillery commander at Toulon Fortress and defeated the royal party and the French. Anti-French coalition forces, was promoted to brigadier general. In June 1794, the coalition forces were defeated in Fleurus, Belgium, forcing some countries to withdraw from the anti-French alliance. Only Britain and Austria continued to fight against France.

In March 1796, Napoleon was ordered to expedition to northern Italy under Austrian rule. In January 1797, he defeated the Austrian army in Livoli. In October 1797, he forced Austria to sign the "Peace of Campoformio", crushing the first Anti-French Alliance. The French Directory appointed Napoleon as commander of the expeditionary force in early 1798 to conduct the Eastern Expedition to hinder trade between Britain and the East Indies. In early July of the same year, the French army landed in Egypt. Napoleon's expedition and the expansion of French power in the Netherlands and Switzerland prompted anti-French countries to establish the second anti-French alliance in 1799. The main participants were Britain, Austria, Russia and the Ottoman Empire. From November 9th to 10th, 1799 (18th to 19th Brumaire), Napoleon launched a coup and established a ruling government. Napoleon served as the first consul and later ruled for life. After Napoleon came to power, he began to attack Britain's allies in Europe to isolate Britain.

On May 8, 1800, Napoleon attacked the Austrian army in northern Italy. On June 14, he won the Battle of Marengo and occupied Italy. On February 9, 1801, the Treaty of France was signed in Luneville. Treaty of Austria, almost all of France's demands were met. On March 26, 1802, France and Britain signed the Treaty of Amiens, and the second anti-French alliance disintegrated.

In May 1803, France and Britain resumed war, and Napoleon occupied Hanover. In 1804 Napoleon proclaimed himself emperor as Napoleon I. In the same year, British Prime Minister W. Pitt organized the third anti-French coalition, with the main participants being Britain, Russia, and Austria. On August 27, 1805, France began to attack the Austro-Russian forces advancing westward. On September 26, Napoleon I arrived in Strasbourg from Paris. The French army heading to Austria killed 186,000 people. On October 20, the French army captured the Ulm Fortress. The Austrian army was defeated miserably. The French army took advantage of the victory and pursued it. On November 13, they entered Vienna and immediately crossed the Danube River. On December 2, Napoleon I personally commanded the French army to engage in a decisive battle with the Russian and Austrian forces at Austerlitz (see the color picture [Camping on the eve of the Battle of Austerlitz (1805)]). About 15,000 Russian-Austrian forces were killed, 20,000 were captured, and the artillery was almost completely wiped out. The 80,000 French troops lost less than 9,000 people. On December 26, the two sides signed the Peace of Pressburg. The third anti-French alliance disintegrated.

In order to consolidate his rule in the central and western regions of Germany, Napoleon I established the Rhine League in July 1806. The power of Napoleon I penetrated deep into the heart of Germany and directly threatened Prussia. Prussia asked Russia for help. In September 1806, Britain, Russia, Prussia, Saxony and others established the fourth anti-French alliance. The Franco-Prussian War began on October 8, 1806. The French army invested 195,000 people and the Prussian army invested more than 175,000 people. The two sides fought two battles at Jena and Auerstedt, and the Prussian army was wiped out. Napoleon I entered Berlin on October 27, and promulgated a continental blockade in Berlin on November 21, launching an economic war against Britain. The continental blockade hindered the sale of Russian agricultural raw materials to Britain, leading Russia to declare war on France, but the Russian army suffered successive defeats. By June 19, 1807, the French army drove directly to the Neman River. The Russian army proposed a truce. From July 7 to 9, 1807, France signed the Treaty of Tilsit with Russia and Prussia, and the fourth anti-French alliance collapsed. In order to effectively implement the continental blockade order against Britain, Napoleon I decided to occupy Portugal, which was unwilling to sever ties with Britain. On November 29, 1807, the French army entered Lisbon. On March 23, 1808, Madrid was captured again. On May 10, Napoleon I appointed his brother Joseph as King of Spain. In January 1809, Britain and Austria formed the fifth anti-French alliance. On April 14, 1809, the Austrian army entered Bavaria and fought fiercely with the French army in Abensberg. The Austrian army lost more than 13,000 people. A battle took place at Ekmeer on April 22, and Napoleon I won. In May Napoleon I entered Vienna. On July 6, the Austrian army suffered a disastrous defeat at Wagram. The Austrian Emperor requested an armistice and signed the Peace of Vienna on October 14. The fifth anti-French alliance disintegrated on its own.

In 1812, Napoleon I led an expedition of 510,000 troops to Russia. On June 24, he crossed the Neman River and occupied Kovno. The Franco-Russian War officially began. A fierce battle took place in Borodino on September 5, with both sides suffering heavy casualties. On September 15, French troops entered Moscow. On October 19, Napoleon's army was forced to evacuate Moscow due to hunger and cold. The Russian army turned to counterattack, and the French army retreated steadily. By December, nearly 450,000 troops were lost. Napoleon I returned home on December 6. In the spring of 1813, Russia, Britain, Prussia, Spain, Portugal and Sweden formed the sixth anti-French alliance. Austria joined in August. The total number of the coalition forces was 850,000, and Napoleon's army was about 550,000. A battle broke out in Dresden on August 27, and Napoleon I won. The two sides fought in Leipzig from October 16 to 19. All the Saxon troops in Napoleon's army defected, and the French army suffered a disastrous defeat. In January 1814, the Allied forces crossed the Rhine. On March 30, Marshal A.-F.-L.V. de Marmont, who was guarding Paris, surrendered and the Allied forces entered Paris. Napoleon I was forced to abdicate on April 6 and was exiled to Elba on the 20th. Napoleon I left Elba on February 26, 1815, entered Paris on the evening of March 20, and began his "Hundred Days" rule. In order to deal with the anti-French coalition forces, Napoleon I began to recruit troops to attack the coalition forces. At this time, Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia organized the 7th Anti-French Alliance. Napoleon I was defeated at Waterloo on June 18, abdicated for the second time on June 22, and was exiled to St. Helena.

The early stages of the Napoleonic Wars were mainly anti-feudal national wars, which were progressive; in the later stages, they turned into aggressive wars that were mainly about plundering and enslaving other ethnic groups. The military art of Napoleon I was mainly to concentrate superior forces, use offense as the main means, and take the annihilation of enemy forces as the main goal. His combat methods are flexible, adaptable to changes, and do not stick to rules. Napoleon's military thought occupies an important position in military history.

[Edit this paragraph] The Franco-Prussian War in the 19th century

The Franco-Prussian War was a war that broke out between Prussia to unify Germany and compete with France for hegemony on the European continent. But the war was started by France and ended with Prussia's victory and the establishment of the German Empire. In Germany and France, this battle is called the Franco-German War.

Causes of the War

In order to unify Germany, Prussia defeated Denmark and Austria in 1864 and 1866, but France still controlled the southern German states behind the scenes and hindered the unification of Germany. . For this reason, under the instigation of Prussian Prime Minister Bismarck, he created a dispute over the succession of the Spanish throne and ordered French Emperor Napoleon III to declare war on Prussia. Prussia used this to unite the German nation and attack France.

The course of the war

After the French Emperor declared war, France immediately organized the Army of the Rhine and assembled on the border between France and Germany. The Corps has eight corps, about 220,000 people, with Napoleon III as commander-in-chief and LeBouf as chief of general staff. France wanted to take a preemptive strike and seize Frankfurt to force Prussia to surrender; but at the same time, the Prussian army also assembled three legions, about 470,000 men, with William I as commander-in-chief and Moltke as chief of general staff. Prussia planned to use superior forces to attack Alsace and Lorraine, defeat the French army on the border, and then attack Paris to force France to surrender.

The war began with the French army attacking the Prussian army in the Saarbrücken area on August 2, 1870. But by August 4, the Prussian army had successfully defeated the French army and entered the counterattack stage. At the same time, the French army suffered successive defeats in other battlefields and was forced to retreat to the border and go on the defensive. By mid-August, the French army had been divided into two parts by the Prussian army. One was led by Marshal Bazin's Rhine Army and 170,000 people were surrounded by the Prussian army at Metz Fortress; the other was led by Napoleon III and MacMuffa. More than 120,000 people led by the marshal were forced to retreat to Sedan after a fierce battle with the Prussian army on August 30.

On September 1st and 2nd, the Prussian and French armies fought a decisive battle in Sedan, that is, the Battle of Sedan. On the morning of September 1, the Prussian army occupied Fulizi, Dongsheli and other places, successfully cutting off the French army's westward retreat and intercepting the French army from behind. At noon that day, the Prussian army also completed the encirclement of the French army and attacked with powerful artillery. In the afternoon, after the French army failed to break through several times, Napoleon III was forced to send a letter to William I at 4:30 p.m., expressing his willingness to "deliver his sword into the hands of His Majesty." On September 2, Napoleon III formally surrendered to the Prussian army with 83,000 officers and soldiers. In this battle, the French army lost 124,000 people, and the Prussian army only lost more than 9,000 people. The whole country in France was in an uproar, and the bourgeoisie took the opportunity to launch a coup in France, overthrow the monarchy, and establish a national defense government.

Paris Commune

Prussia was not satisfied with the surrender of the French emperor and continued to attack France aggressively. On September 19, Prussian troops surrounded Paris. In order to defend Paris, the Paris working class established 194 battalions of the National Guard, with a strength of 300,000 people, led by the National Guard Central Committee elected by the workers. This is a political force opposed to the defense government. Soon the workers of Paris launched an uprising and occupied the city hall in just one day. The defense government fled to Paris%94%E8%B5%9B%E5%AE%AB" class=innerlink>The Palace of Versailles.

On March 26, the people of Paris voted and elected the workers' own Regime - Paris Commune, but because the Commune was socialist in nature, it was jointly attacked by the capitalist defense government and imperialist Prussia

The retreating defense government immediately signed a peace treaty with Prussia to cede the border with Germany. Lorraine and Alsace, and paid an indemnity of 5 billion francs in exchange for Prussia's withdrawal from France and the release of 100,000 French prisoners of war captured during the war, which were then used to suppress the Paris Commune. In the end, the Paris Commune was defeated and was defeated by the national defense. The government was eliminated and most of its members were executed.

The impact of the war

The Franco-Prussian War ended with the collapse of the Second French Empire and the surrender of the French bourgeois government and the Treaty of Frankfurt. Extremely harsh: France ceded Alsace and Lorraine to Germany and paid an indemnity of 5 billion francs. On January 18, 1871, King William I of Prussia announced the establishment of the German Empire in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles, and he became the first president. Emperor. Germany was unified. However, the grievances between Germany and France in this war laid the foundation for the outbreak of the First World War.

[Edit this paragraph] The North and South of the United States in the 19th century. War

The war between the South and the North of the United States from April 1861 to April 1865 was also called the American Civil War. The North led the war and the fighting force was the majority of workers, farmers and blacks. . In the South, it was only the plantation slave owners who insisted on the war. Their purpose in the war was to expand slavery throughout the country, while the North's purpose was to defeat the South and restore national unity.

Prelude

In the mid-19th century, the contradiction between the free labor system in the North and the slavery system in the South developed to an irreconcilable point. The slavery system in the South became the main obstacle to the socio-economic development of the United States. The struggle between the North and the South was particularly fierce in the fight for western land. In the first half of the 19th century, during the westward expansion of the US territory, new states were established in the west. Whenever a new state was formed, a struggle took place within that state to allow or prohibit the existence of slavery. The northern bourgeoisie and farmers advocated the prohibition of slavery in the new state and demanded that the new state be designated as a free state. The southern slave owners tried to expand slavery to the west and advocated that the new states be designated as states that allowed slavery to exist. The slave owners used their dominant position in Congress and the government to win consecutive victories and aroused the indignation of the majority of the people in the north. In 1854, the Communist Party of China was established in the north. In the same year, southern slave owners attempted to use force to expand slavery to Kansas, so an armed struggle broke out in Kansas between western farmers and immigrants from free states against southern slave owners. The struggle lasted until 1856, kicking off the Civil War. In 1857, slave owners used the Scott decision to attempt to extend slavery to all of the United States. This led to John Brown's Rebellion.

The first stage

In 1860, the Communist Party member A. Lincoln was elected president and the Democratic Party suffered a crushing defeat, which became a signal for southern slave owners to secede from the Union and launch a rebellion. The southern slave state South Carolina first seceded from the Union, followed by Georgia, Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas. In February 1861, they announced the establishment of the "Southern Confederacy" and established J. Davis' administration. On April 12, 1861, rebel government forces began bombarding the Federal Fort Sumter in South Carolina and captured it on the 14th. The Lincoln administration issued a crusade order on April 15, and the Civil War broke out. Soon, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas seceded from the Union to join the Confederacy.

At the beginning of the war, the strength of the North greatly exceeded that of the South. The North had a population of 22.34 million, while the South had only 9.1 million, and more than 3.8 million of them were black slaves. The north has developed industry, an extensive railway network and abundant food, while the south has almost no industry and very few railways. However, the South has adequate military preparations and has an army that is better equipped and better trained. Moreover, on the eve of the Civil War J. President Buchanan (the agent of the slave owners) managed to get large amounts of arms and money to the South. During the first phase of the Civil War, the North suffered a series of military defeats. In the Battle of Manassas in July 1861 and the Peninsular Campaign in the summer of 1862, the Union army suffered heavy losses. Although the Northern Army achieved a series of brilliant results on the Western Front and captured several important strategic strongholds from the Southern Army, these results were offset by the disastrous defeat on the Eastern Front. In the face of repeated military defeats in the North, the Communist Party, radicals within the party and abolitionists in society proposed the idea of ??liberating slaves and arming blacks. Lincoln also recognized the need to free the slaves.

The second stage

On September 23, 1862, Lincoln issued the preparatory Emancipation Proclamation. Proclamation: If the Southern rebels did not lay down their arms before January 1, 1863, slaves in the rebellious states would be free from that date. After the news spread to the south. Thousands of slaves fled north. The British working class also launched a movement to support the North, forcing the British government to abandon its original intervention plan. The Lincoln government also implemented a series of revolutionary measures and policies: from 1862 to 1863, it implemented the policy of arming blacks. Thousands of blacks signed up to join the northern army, mainly fugitive slaves from the south; the "Homestead Act" promulgated in May 1862 stipulated: All adults loyal to the Confederacy can receive 160 acres of land in the West as long as they pay a registration fee of $10. They can become the owner of this land after cultivating the land for 5 years. The Lincoln administration severely suppressed counterrevolutionaries and purged southern agents from the army. In 1893, the conscription law was implemented to replace the recruitment system and thereby strengthen the military strength of the north. At the same time, Lincoln adjusted the military leadership structure and implemented unified command, ki/U%EF%BC%8ES%EF%BC%8E%E6%A0%BC%E5%85%B0%E7%89%B9" class=innerlink> U. S. Grant was the commander-in-chief of the entire army. In 1863, the North experienced a military turnaround, and the victory at Gettysburg on July 1 of the same year became a turning point in the battlefield. In 1864, the Northern Supreme Commander adopted a new strategic approach: launching powerful offensives on the east and west fronts at the same time, with the main goal of consuming the enemy's strength on the east front; and using powerful forces to penetrate into the enemy's hinterland and cut off the enemy. The connection between the Northeast and Southwest of the "Southern Confederacy"

In September 1864, the Northern Army under General W. T. Sherman captured Atlanta in one fell swoop, and the famous Battle of Atlanta began two months later. "March to the Sea" completely destroyed the enemy's various military facilities during the march, dealt a heavy blow to the enemy's economic power, and paralyzed the southern economy. On the Eastern Front, General Grant led the Northern Army to drive the enemy into rebellion. Near the "capital" Richmond. In early 1865, slaves fled one after another, and the plantation economy was on the verge of collapse. The naval blockade implemented by the Northern Navy almost cut off the trade between the South and Europe.

At the same time, opposition also emerged within the South, and many small farmers joined the "Federalists" to engage in anti-war activities. Desertions from the South were increasing day by day. Food and daily necessities are scarce. On April 9, 1865, R. E. Lee's troops were encircled by the Northern Army and forced to surrender to Grant. The Civil War ends. America is reunited.

In 1883, the Krakatoa volcano in Indonesia erupted.

[Edit this paragraph] The Eight-Power Allied Forces invaded Beijing in the 19th century

Allied Forces Invasion:

With the rapid development of the Boxer Rebellion in Zhili and the Beijing-Tianjin area, Foreign powers repeatedly coerced the Qing government into suppressing it. In April 1900, as soon as the Boxer Rebellion developed in the suburbs of Beijing, the Russian minister proposed to suppress it. The ministers of the United States, Britain, France and Germany also issued a joint note under the secret orders of their respective governments to inform the Qing government to "wipe out the Boxers" and gathered their fleets at Dagukou to threaten them. In May, the Boxer Rebellion developed rapidly in the Beijing-Tianjin area. More and more Qing soldiers joined the Boxer Rebellion. The anti-foreign forces headed by Duan Wang Zaiyi gained the upper hand in the Qing government. Seeing that the government could no longer control the situation and that the Prime Minister's Office was "incapable of persuading the imperial court to take severe repressive measures," the ministers from various countries planned to directly send troops to intervene. On May 28, eight countries, Britain, France, Germany, Austria, Italy, Japan, Russia, and the United States, formally decided at a meeting of ministers of various countries in China to send troops to suppress the Boxer Rebellion, and mobilized troops to Beijing in the name of "protecting the embassy." From May 30 to June 2, more than 400 marines from eight countries took trains from Tianjin to Beijing and stationed in Dongjiaominxiang. Subsequently, various countries continued to send more troops to China. 24 warships from various countries gathered outside Dagu Port, and more than 2,000 invading troops gathered in the Tianjin Concession. Around June 6, the eight countries' joint policy of aggression against China was successively approved by their respective governments, and the war of aggression against China broke out.

Wherever the invading armies of the eight countries went, they burned, killed, raped, and looted, ruthlessly killing people. Even the Commander-in-Chief of the Eight-Nation Allied Forces, Wade West, also confessed, "The exact amount of damage and looting that China suffered this time will never be found out, but the amount must be extremely significant."

After the Boxer Rebellion, all the great powers took the opportunity to send troops to China and plunder China. When the news reached Russia, the Tsarist government considered it a great opportunity to invade China. In addition to actively participating in the Eight-Nation Allied Forces, on July 16, 1900, the Hailanpao Massacre occurred. Almost all the thousands of Chinese living in Hailanpao were killed. They were brutally killed by the Russian army, and less than a hundred people escaped by swimming. From the 17th to the 21st, the Russian invading army drove more than 10,000 residents of No. 64 Village in Jiangdong to the Heilongjiang River where they were shot or hacked to death with axes. The rest were driven into the Heilongjiang River and drowned. Only a few people survived by swimming. On August 28, the Russian army occupied Qiqihar; on September 22, it occupied Jilin; on the 28th, it occupied Liaoyang; on October 1, it entered Shengjing (Shenyang). Wherever the Russian army went, they burned, killed, looted and committed all kinds of evil.

In November 1900, Russia coerced Fengtian General Zengqi into signing the "Temporary Charter of Fengtian Diplomacy" in an attempt to legalize military occupation. The Russian army took advantage of the opportunity of military occupation to plunder the gold mines, coal mines and forest resources in Northeast China.

On June 10, 1900, more than 2,000 foreign invaders, led by Seymour, attacked Beijing from Tianjin. They encountered resistance from the Boxer Rebellion along the way. On the 11th, the Boxers and the invading army started a hand-to-hand battle near Luofa Station. On the 18th, the Boxers surrounded the invading troops who invaded Langfang Station and launched an attack, killing and wounding dozens of invading troops. On the 19th, Seymour was defeated and fled to Tianjin. He was intercepted by the people on the way and suffered 400 casualties. On the 22nd, they retreated to Xugu, Tianjin in embarrassment. On June 17, another invading army landed in Dagu and invaded Tianjin. They were beaten everywhere along the way. It was not until the 23rd that they took over the Laolongtou Station (now Tianjin Station) and joined the invading army in Xiko to arrive at the Tianjin Concession. Launch an attack on Tianjin City. Starting from July 6, the fighting in Tianjin became fierce. Zhang Decheng led the Boxers to fight the invading troops in Zizhu Forest for three days and nights. On the 14th, Tianjin fell.

The news of the invasion of Beijing and the capture of the Dagu Fort reached Beijing, arousing great anger among the people. The people successively executed Sugiyama Bin, the secretary of the Japanese embassy who provoked the murder in Beijing, and Klinder, the German minister. From June 15th to 20th, they launched fierce attacks on foreign churches in Xishiku and foreign embassies in Dongjiaomin Lane, severely attacking the foreign invaders.

Xin Chou Treaty:

During the Eight-Power Allied Forces' invasion of China, the Qing government, under the pressure of the people, superficially "declared war" on the great powers, but secretly sabotaged the Boxer Rebellion and threatened the invading forces. Compromise and surrender. After the fall of Tianjin on July 14, 1900, the Qing government appointed Li Hongzhang as minister plenipotentiary on August 7 to formally sue for peace with foreign powers. The great powers originally wanted to carve up China by force, but failed due to the resistance of the Chinese people. At the same time, each country had its own plans and refused to give in to each other. There were many conflicts, which made them need to continue to use and maintain the Qing government and indirectly rule China through the Qing government.

In December 1900, the great powers (in addition to the eight countries that sent troops, plus Belgium, the Netherlands, and Spain) proposed a "Peace Outline" to the Qing government, and later formulated detailed terms. In September 1901, It was officially signed in Beijing on September 7.

The main contents of the "Xinchou Treaty": punish officials who "offended" the foreign powers; send princes and ministers to Germany and Japan to make amends; the Qing government explicitly prohibited the Chinese from establishing and participating in various organizations to resist the invading army; pay compensation of 450 million taels Silver, to be paid off in 39 years, with principal and interest of 980 million taels of silver; establishing an embassy area in the Dongjiaominxiang area of ????Beijing, where countries can station troops, but Chinese are not allowed to live in the area; destroying the Dagu Fort and the areas from Beijing to Tianjin The fort in Haikou; various countries can station troops along the railway line from Beijing to Shanhaiguan. After the signing of the Treaty of Xinchou, China was completely reduced to a semi-colonial state.

[Edit this paragraph] Political celebrities of the 19th century

- Asia

- Empress Dowager Cixi, China

- Hirobumi Ito, Japan< /p>

- Europe

- Napoleon, France

- Wilhelm I, Germany

- Bismarck, Germany

- Metternich, Austria

- Alexander II, Russia

- Middle East

[Edit this paragraph] 19th century scientists

- James Maxwell

- Darwin

- Max

- Edison

- Humboldt

[Edit this paragraph] 19th century artists

- Victor Hugo

- Charles Dickens

- Goethe

-Byron

-Shelley

-Mary Shelley

-Keats

-Wasworth

-Southey

[Edit this paragraph] 19th century almanac

als:19. Jahrhundert ja:19th century ko:19? simple:19th century th: 19 zh-min- nan:19 sè-kí

Year

A year is a ten-year period, which refers to consecutive ten years. It is usually applicable to the AD calendar. The division of eras is as follows: According to the AD year, the adjacent ten years of the year that can be divided by 10 are considered to be one era. However, there are two different methods for the specific division of years. For example, the 1960s usually refers to the 10 consecutive years from 1960 to 1969, but some people think that it should refer to the period from 1961 to 1970. for 10 consecutive years.

category:time unit ja:10 years old simple:Decade