Introduction to Mali

Mali was a city-state located near the west bank of the Euphrates River in northern Mesopotamia (now eastern Syria) during the Early Bronze Age and the Middle Bronze Age. One of the earliest known planned cities, Mari is considered a center of trade and copper and bronze smelting, located between Babylonia in southern Mesopotamia and the resource-rich Taurus Mountains of modern Turkey. For more than 1,200 years, Mari served as a major center in northern Mesopotamia until it was destroyed by Hammurabi's Babylon between 1760 and 1757 BC, gradually fading from memory, literally— —Only a third of the city survives today, the rest was washed away by the Euphrates River.

Geography and Conditions of the Site

The Mari site is located in modern-day Tel Hariri in eastern Syria. During the Bronze Age, the Euphrates was approximately 4-6 km from the city, but has since moved eastwards. The city is thought to have been built alongside a 10-kilometer long man-made "connecting canal" that once ran through the city and provided water essential for its existence, as the city itself was too far from the Euphrates to be Get water every day. Feet and groundwater are too salty for the well. As a result of Hammurabi's devastation of Mari, the connecting canal of Mari exceeded its intended boundaries and eventually eroded two-thirds of the city, including much of the housing in the city's third and final phase.

Canals: the lifeblood of Mali

In addition to supplying water to the city, connecting canals also facilitated the merchant ships that sailed on the river. In addition to the connecting canals, the city's builders also built two other important canals. One is an irrigation canal 16 kilometers long and 100 meters wide, and the other is a 126 kilometers long waterway that passes through Mari on the other side of the Euphrates, allowing ships to bypass the winding Euphrates and instead go straight - Mari controls the entrance Click and profit from tolls.

Technological and Architectural Innovation

Mari is an early example of complex urban planning and is believed to have been completely planned out by another unknown but complex society prior to actual construction. This is evident in the overall design of Mari, as the city was built as two concentric rings, the outer ring designed to protect the city from the occasionally violent floods of the Euphrates River, and the inner ring designed to ward off attackers.

Archaeologists have unearthed some of the earliest examples of Syro-Mesopotamian technology at Tel Hariri, including wheels and pipes. Mali was built so that the entire city sloped gradually downwards, with a complicated street drainage system. This meant that rainwater from occasional heavy rains could safely drain away from the city without damaging the buildings, all made of mudbrick.

Archeology and Modern Dangers

Mali was discovered in 1933 AD by local Bedouins who discovered a statue and informed the French government - this was the first time Syria came under French control period. Since then, Mali has been a French-excavated site, and most of the literature on the site is published in French. It was excavated by André Parrot in AD 1933-1939, AD 1951-1954, and AD 1960-1974. In 1979 AD a new expedition was led by Jean-Claude Margueron, who was responsible for the excavations until 2004 AD.

After he retired and handed over responsibilities to Pascal Butterlin, Margueron went on to write a book about Mari, condensing 70 years of scholarship on the site into a 159-page English summary that makes up the The basis for a definition. Butterlin ran the excavation into CE in 2012 when the Syrian Civil War put further excavations on hold. Mari has faced widespread looting since 2012, the impact of which is unclear.

Pieces of Mali

Between 1933 AD and 1938 AD, excavators discovered more than 15,000 stone tablets in Mali. Many of these are concentrated in the "Grand Palace", but many also come from private residences. While some tablets are from earlier periods, most date from the last 50 years of Mari's existence, and they help to recreate in great detail the Syro-Mesopotamian world of that time.

History

Mali's history as a city and regional power dates back to BC. The 1,200 years of history from 2950 BC to 1760 BC are divided by Magron into three main periods: City I, City II, and City III. It became a backwater after Hammurabi razed the city to the ground between 1760 and 1757 BC. The following historical account is based on Margueron's conclusions regarding Mari's possible foundation and existence, combined with other sources.

City I - The Birth of a Superpower

Earliest part of Mari's history, c. 2950-2650 BC, known as "City I" by Maglen.

Between 3000 and 2900 BC, an unknown but well-organized complex society chose a desolate area near a bend in the Euphrates River to build their new capital.

Between 3000 and 2900 BC, an unknown but well-organized complex society chose a desolate area near a bend in the Euphrates River to build their new capital. They may have hoped to monopolize the market for trade and production of metal products in northern Mesopotamia. After digging a canal to connect the two bends of the river, they used the soil here to build a perfectly circular area that would form the center of their new city. The canal cut through the area, making this uninhabitable area Places become habitable. The fortifications were erected to form a majestic capital surrounded by two concentric circles, a design that would survive throughout its 1,200-year history.

Along with the construction of the connecting canal, these men also built two other canals on either side of the city. On the east side of the river is a channel. Another is an irrigation canal that provides food for Mali's crops.

As of 2008, no religious or palatial buildings have been discovered in the first city. However, many houses were discovered, and their excavations paint a picture of a city full of vibrant and diverse industry, producing far more products than those made of metal.

At some point, c. In 2650 BC, City I ceased to be inhabited for unknown reasons. Over the next century, the canals silted up and the city emptied out.

City II - Rebirth of Mari

In C. 2550 BC, a new city was built on the ruins of the first city, which was razed to the ground by the new inhabitants, thus lacking the first Evidence of the end of the city. Canals were dredged.

Much of the historical knowledge of Mali from this period, which Magron calls "City II," is known from texts found at the site of Ebla, Mali's on-again, off-again rival and ally. Mari is known to have controlled a large part of northern Mesopotamia, and during the reign of Ishbi-Ila it may have even controlled territory as far south as Ur, now southeastern Iraq, which was then a coastal City. Sometime in the second half of the 25th century BC, Mari and Kish are known to have allied with Akshak's ancestors in his failed campaign against King Inatum of Lagash.

From C. 2420 to c. Mari began demanding tribute from Ebla in 2360 B.C. from the reign of Ibruil of Mari. This ended when a dispute over land owned by Mali on the east side of a bend in the Euphrates River escalated into a war that ultimately ended in Mali's favor. However, Ebla managed to connect northern trade routes with friendly cities north of Mali's territory, thereby avoiding having to rely on Mali for goods from the east. The rivalry between Mari and Ebla ended with the destruction of Ebla c. 2350 BC.

City II was destroyed by the Akkadian king and grandson of Sargon, Naram the Immortal. Naram-Sin seeks to expand the Akkadian empire, c. In 2220 BC he razed the city and its walls.

City III - The Great of Mali and the Northern Empire

Mali was rebuilt under the rule of the Akkadians, and this incarnation of Mali was classified by Magron as the third city. A local governor known as Shakkanakku controlled the city, an administrative title that became a hereditary title after the first ruler.

When the Akkadian Empire fell, c. In 2150 BC, Mali regained independence and regained control of northern Mesopotamia. Despite Mari's freedom, use of the Shakkanakku title continued and was used for the remainder of City III's existence.

During the first 150-200 years of the existence of City III, Shakkanakku lived in a palace, the only known details of its existence and location are that it and some temples were rebuilt after the destruction of City II of the first buildings. The lack of information is due to the fact that this so-called "Phantom Palace" was razed to make way for the "Grand Palace", a massive building with over 250 rooms on the first floor alone.

To maintain peace in the region, Mali formed an alliance with the Third Dynasty of Ur, which controlled southern Mesopotamia, and Mali solidified this through royal marriages. This peace lasted until the collapse of the Ur dynasty c. In 2000 B.C., the south fell into chaos due to Amorite invasion and internal decay.

Around 2000 B.C., nomadic Semitic people known as the Amaru, or "Amorites," invaded from Syria and took control of the cities of Mesopotamia. Mari is known to have fortified its walls to keep out the Amorites, but by c. 1830 BC this proved to be in vain and Shakkanakku fell.

Amorite Period

Around 1830 BC, the Amorite ruler Yaggid-Lim took control of Mali and established what is today known as "Lim" or "Amorite Dynasty" "Dynasty of Shakkanakku" replaced "Dynasty of Shakkanakku". The rule of the descendants of Yaggid-Lim went through a marked break, which lasted until 1761 BC. The archive of inscribed clay tablets in Mali dates back to this era, and as a result, many important historical actors and stories are known. The tablets help map the political, economic and social landscape of Mali's final years, as well as the wider world around Mali.

It is known that during his ten-year reign, Yaggid-Lim came into conflict with King Ekallatum, who conquered Mari and took Yaggid-Lim's son Yakhud-Lim hostage. In 1820 BC, Agedlin died and was succeeded by his son Yahudlim. Yakhud-Lim seeks to increase Mali's influence economically and militarily. In addition to expanding Mali's already impressive irrigation system and strengthening the fortifications of Mali and Telka, he also sent troops west to the coastal cities of the Levant to force them to pay tribute to Mali.

Despite these efforts, Mali became a vassal of Aleppo under Yakhud-Lim, but at some point was forced to become a vassal of another Naram-S?n, this time It's Eshnunna. Naram-S?n died c. In 1811 BC, Mali became independent again and began to regain its old territories. However, this was not the end of Yakhud-Lim's troubles.

Amorite Conspiracy and the "Assyrian" Kings

About 1808 BCE, Shamsi-Adad, who would be retroactively counted as king of Assyria later Assyria The king began to conquer northern Mesopotamia when he took control of Assyria. When Shamsi-Adad's ambitions became apparent, a war broke out between him and Yakhud-Lim for control of the region. After some time, Yakhud-Lim was defeated and later assassinated by his own son Sumu-Yamam. He ruled Mali for two years in 1798 BC before being suppressed by Shamsi-Adad in 1796 BC. Shamsi-Adad's son and co-ruler Yasmakh-Adad was granted rule over Mari at an uncertain date, probably BC. 1788 BC.

Letters between Yamsakh-Adad and his father reveal that Yamsakh-Adad was a very incompetent and dissolute ruler who had to frequently turn for help to his father who showed deep contempt for his son . The ruler of Zimri-Lim, the grandson or nephew of Yakhud-Lim, defeated Yamsakh-Adad with the help of Aleppo in 1776 BC and, after the death of Shamsi-Adad, regained the Amorite throne.

Zimri-Lim: The Last King of Mari and the End of Mari

Zimri-Lim seeks to restore Mari to its former glory and spends five years resolving tribal disputes and fighting After fighting against the Kingdom of Eshnunna, Zimri-Lim had canceled its alliance with Aleppo in favor of an alliance with Aleppo. He married the king's daughter, cementing his alliance with Aleppo.

Mari is known to have been very tribal at this time - most Malians called themselves "Khans", a reference to their Amorite origins - and there are several known examples It is shown that the Amorite rulers at court came into conflict with their fellow nomadic Amorites. Zimri-Lim is known to have lived a glorious life.

A coalition of Babylonians, Mari and Elamites captured Eshnuna around 1766 BC, but Mari and Babylon were betrayed by Elamites who later managed to rebuff them. Thereafter, although Xinlilin and Hammurabi of Babylon did not trust each other, the two often fought together against many powerful enemies.

Ancient Syria Mesopotamia ca. 1764 BC

Ancient Syria Mesopotamia ca. 1764 BC

Attar-Aram Syria, using a modified map originally produced by Sémhur. (cc-SA)

In 1761 BC, Hammurabi, once an ally of Zimri-Lim, captured Mari. It is unknown what became of Zimri-Lim, whether he was betrayed by Hammurabi or died in military action. It is also not known whether Mari was threatened with force - there is no evidence that Mari was preparing to defend itself - or, finding itself without a leader, the city simply handed itself over to Hammurabi, who then sent emissaries to seize the wealth. Two years at the Grand Palais.

Regardless, sometime between 1759 and 1757 B.C., Hammurabi razed Mari to the ground.

When Hammurabi burned the palace, he inadvertently released the inside piece - an event that has occurred in several ancient cities such as Ebra and Ugarit, where the palace became an accidental pottery kiln - Thereby maintaining the excavator's status for the future of the site. Mary never recovered from the devastation and the city fell into obscurity. The site was only occasionally inhabited before it was finally abandoned forever by Alexander the Great's successors.