Review Outline of Geography Graduation Examination (Hunan Education Press)

1, the shape and size of the earth The earth is an irregular sphere with slightly flattened poles, with an average diameter of 637 1 meter.

2. Latitude and Latitude On the globe, the area around the globe in the east-west direction is called latitude. All latitudes are circles, which can be called latitude circles; The length of latitude circle is long or short, the equator is the longest, it gradually shortens to the poles and finally reaches a point. The latitude represents the east and west directions.

The equator is the longest latitude, about 40 thousand kilometers long. It is equal to the distance between the two poles and divides the earth into two hemispheres. The equator is zero latitude on the earth. The latitude north of the equator is called north latitude, and it is customary to use "n" as the code name; The latitude south of the equator, called south latitude, is customarily represented by "S".

3. Meridian and Longitude On the globe, the line connecting the north and south poles and perpendicular to the latitude is called meridian, also called meridian. All meridians are semicircular; They are all of the same length, indicating the north-south direction.

The zero meridian on the earth is called the prime meridian. It is divided into 1800 from the prime meridian to the east and west. 1800 in the east belongs to east longitude, so it is customary to use "e" as the code, and 1800 in the west belongs to west longitude, so it is customary to use "w" as the code.

It is customary in the world to use warp circles of 200W and 1600E as the dividing line between the eastern and western hemispheres.

4. the rotation of the earth and the alternation of day and night. the earth keeps rotating around its axis, which is called the rotation of the earth. The direction of the earth's rotation is from west to east. It takes about 24 hours to turn around, which is one day. In this way, the phenomenon of alternating day and night is produced.

5. The revolution of the earth and seasonal changes The earth revolves around the sun while rotating. The direction of the earth's revolution is also from west to east, and the time of revolution is one year. The orbital plane always keeps an angle of 66.5 with the earth axis. Because of the revolution of the earth, there are seasonal changes.

6. The division of five zones The tropics are between the Tropic of Cancer, with direct sunlight in a year, and the ground gets the most sunlight and heat, and the climate is hot all year round. The Tropic of Cancer is the dividing line between tropical and temperate zones.

The cold zone is located in the area north of the Arctic Circle and south of the Antarctic Circle, and it is extreme day and night. Polar circle is the dividing line between cold zone and temperate zone. In temperate regions between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle, and between the Tropic of Cancer and the Antarctic Circle, there are no extreme days and nights in a year, and the solar light and heat obtained on the ground are less than those in tropical regions and more than those in cold regions, and the climate changes obviously in the four seasons.

7. Scale, legend and notes of the three elements of the map. The smaller the area drawn on the map, the more detailed the content to be represented and the larger the scale to be selected; On the contrary, the smaller the scale. On the map, it is usually "up north and down south, left west and right east"

8. Calculation method of ground height The vertical distance above sea level in a certain place on the ground is called altitude. The vertical distance from one place to another is called relative height.

9. Contour lines connect points with the same altitude, which is the contour line. Each contour line has a corresponding height value. Where the slope is steep, the contour lines are dense; Where the slope is gentle, the contour lines are sparse.

10, land and sea distribution in the world. The ocean area accounts for 7 1% of the earth, and the land area only accounts for 29%. The mainland and its nearby islands are called the mainland. The northern hemisphere is Europe and North America. most

People used to regard the Urals, ural river and the Great Caucasus as the dividing lines between Europe and Asia. The Suez Canal separates Asia from Africa. North America and South America are in the Western Hemisphere, called America. The Panama Canal is the dividing line between North America and South America. Antarctica is mainly located in the Antarctic circle, surrounded by the ocean.

1 1. land topography people divide the terrain into five basic types: mountains, plains, plateaus, basins and hills.

The altitude of mountainous areas is relatively high, generally more than 500 meters, with undulating peaks and steep slopes, and some mountainous areas are distributed in strips. Among them, the most prominent are two huge mountain systems composed of several tall mountains: one is the Alps-Himalayas mountain system across the south-central part of the Eurasian continent; The other is the Cordillera mountain system, which runs through North and South America, and consists of Rocky Mountain, Andes Mountain and other mountains.

The altitude of the plain is low, generally below 200 meters, and the ground is flat or undulating. It is often used to describe the "endless" elegance of the plain. The largest plain in the world is the Amazon Plain in South America.

The terrain in Europe and Africa is relatively simple, mainly plains and plateaus; The terrain in Asia is complex, with high terrain in the middle and low periphery, wide plateaus and mountains, and plains distributed around the mainland.

14, the temperature changes during the day, and the temperature is sometimes high and sometimes low. The highest temperature on land usually appears in the afternoon (about14); The lowest temperature appears around sunrise. In a year, the monthly average maximum temperature in most parts of the world appears in July in the northern hemisphere and 65438+ 10 in the southern hemisphere. The monthly average minimum temperature appears in 1 in the northern hemisphere and in July in the southern hemisphere. The difference between the highest monthly average temperature and the lowest monthly average temperature in a place is called annual range.

17, seasonal variation of precipitation: rainy areas throughout the year: there is more precipitation near the equator, such as Singapore; There is no rain all year round: there is little monthly precipitation in inland areas and polar regions, such as Cairo, Egypt; Rainy areas in summer: the east coast of the mainland near 300 ~ 400 north latitude, rainy in summer and rainy in winter, such as China; Rainy areas in winter: the west coast of the mainland near 300 ~ 400 north latitude, rainy in winter and rainy in summer, such as Rome, Italy; Perennial humid area: on the west coast of the mainland at 400 ~ 600 north latitude, the area affected by the westerly wind from the ocean all the year round is humid every month with moderate rainfall, such as London, England.

18, main climate types and distribution in the world 1. The main tropical climate type is 1, and the tropical rain forest climate is mainly distributed near the equator, with high temperature and rainy all year round. 2. The tropical grassland climate is mainly distributed in the north and south sides of the equatorial rainforest climate in Africa and South America. It is hot all year round, with obvious dry season and rainy season. 3. The tropical monsoon climate is most obvious in the Indian Peninsula and Indochina Peninsula in the south and southeast of Asia. This climate is hot all year round, and a year can also be divided into dry season and rainy season, and the wind direction changes with the seasons. In dry season, the wind blows from land to sea, and there is little rain; In the rainy season, the wind blows from the ocean to the land, and the precipitation is concentrated. 4. The tropical desert climate is mainly distributed in the west coast and inland areas of the mainland near the Tropic of Cancer. This climate is characterized by scarce precipitation, hot and dry all year round, and a large desert on the ground. 2. Temperate climate types are mainly 1, and temperate and subtropical monsoon climate are distributed in eastern Asia. Summer is hot and rainy, and winter is cold and dry. Roughly bounded by the isotherm of 65438+ 10, the average temperature in June is 0℃, with temperate monsoon climate in the north and subtropical monsoon climate in the south. 2. The Mediterranean climate is mainly located in the middle and low latitudes on the west coast of the mainland, with the most distribution along the Mediterranean coast, hot and dry in summer and mild and rainy in winter. 3. Temperate continental climate is mainly distributed in mid-latitude inland areas, with intense heat in winter, great temperature change, less precipitation and concentrated in summer. 4. The temperate maritime climate is located on the west coast of the mid-latitude continent, which is the most widely distributed in western Europe, mild and rainy, and the annual changes of temperature and precipitation are relatively small.

24. Distribution of iron, coal and oil The distribution of iron, coal and oil in the world is as follows:

1. Iron ore in the world is mainly distributed in Russia, Malaysia, China, Australia, India, Canada and the United States. These seven countries account for about 90% of the world's iron reserves.

2. Coal is mainly distributed in Eurasia and central North America in the northern hemisphere. Among the countries in the world, China, the United States, Russian and other countries have the highest coal reserves in the world.

3. The distribution of world oil resources is very concentrated, and the Middle East accounts for more than half of the world oil reserves. Mainly exported to Japan, Europe and North America. 27. The most densely populated areas in the world are in eastern and southern Asia, Europe and eastern North America, and the densely populated areas are mainly located in the plains near the middle and low latitudes. In cold tundra zone, ice sheet belt, vast cold coniferous forest belt, undeveloped tropical rain forest belt, arid desert area, high plateau, mountainous area and sparsely populated area. 28. Population migration to cities and its problems. The proportion of urban population to a country's total population is often one of the criteria to measure a country's development level. More than 70% of the population in developed countries is urban, while the urban population in developing countries accounts for just over 30% of the population. Nowadays, the phenomenon of large-scale migration of rural population to cities mainly occurs in developing countries. 29. White people in the world are generally light in skin color, eyes and hair color, with wavy hair, high nose, thin lips and much body hair. They are mainly distributed in Europe, North America and Oceania. Yellow people have light yellow or brownish black skin, straight black hair, flat face and medium body hair. They are mainly distributed in East Asia. Black people have dark skin, curly hair, thick lips and little body hair. They are mainly distributed in Africa, Oceania and the United States. 32. The world's buried areas are divided into 13 regions. See page 83 of volume one for the picture.

35. Japan's Natural and Geographical Features Japan is an island country in East Asia. Its territory consists of four big islands, Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu, and some small islands. It is relatively small and densely populated. Japan is mountainous, more than three quarters of its territory is mountainous and hilly, and the Kanto Plain near Tokyo Bay is the largest plain in Japan. Kobe and Yokohama on the Pacific coast of Honshu Island are famous seaports in China. The Japanese archipelago is located in the volcanic seismic belt around the Pacific Ocean, and there are many volcanoes. Mount Fuji is one of the famous active volcanoes and the highest mountain in Japan. Japan's monsoon climate has maritime characteristics. Compared with places at the same latitude in the Asian continent, it is warmer in winter, cooler in summer and more abundant in precipitation. Most parts of the country are covered with forests, and the rivers in mountainous areas are short and urgent, with abundant water resources. But mineral resources are scarce. See P90 in Volume I for the picture.

37. For southeast asia map, see Volume I, page 94. Southeast Asia is located in the southeast of Asia, including Indochina Peninsula and Malay Archipelago. The southern part of Indochina Peninsula is long and narrow, extending to the equator, and is called Malay Peninsula. Countries in Southeast Asia are all coastal countries or island countries except Laos, which is a landlocked country. The largest area is Indonesia. The Territory consists of more than 65,438+03,000 islands, making it the largest archipelagic country in the world. It is the country with the most volcanic activity in the world. Therefore, it is called "the country of volcanoes". The southern part of the Malay Peninsula and most parts of the Malay Archipelago are located near the equator and belong to the tropical rainforest climate. Indo-China Peninsula and northern Philippine Islands belong to tropical monsoon climate. 39. For the map of South Asia, see Volume I, P 108. South Asia is the birthplace of Buddhism and Hinduism. There are towering Himalayas in northern South Asia. This part is called "South Asian subcontinent". The central plain alluvial by the Indus River and Ganges River is the main agricultural area and densely populated area in South Asia. Most of the Indian Peninsula is occupied by Deccan Plateau. Precipitation in South Asia is affected by monsoon, and the southwest monsoon prevails from June to September every year, which is the rainy season. From June 65438 to May of the following year, the northwest monsoon prevailed, which was a dry season. 43. The Sahara Desert is the largest desert in the world. It starts from the Atlantic coast in the west, the Red Sea coast in the east, the Mediterranean coast in the north and the savanna in Sudan in the south, accounting for about 1/4 of Africa. There is high temperature and little rain all the year round, plants are scarce, and there is rich oil under the desert.

44. Arabs and Islam West Asia and North Africa are multi-ethnic regions, mainly white. Common Arabic, these countries are called "Arab countries". West Asia is the birthplace of Islam, Christianity and Judaism. The city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia is called the Holy City of Islam. Jerusalem is regarded as the holy city by Islam, Christianity and Judaism.

45. Kuwait and North Africa, the world's largest oil producers, are the regions that produce and export the most oil. West Asia is centered on the Persian Gulf, forming a huge oil belt. Saudi Arabia, Iran, Kuwait and Iraq are the main oil producers in West Asia. Oil reserves account for about 1/2 of the world's total oil reserves, and production accounts for about 1/4 of the total output. The oil produced is mainly exported to western Europe, the United States, Japan and other countries and regions. Morocco's phosphate reserves account for 3/4 of the world. 48. Egypt is located in the Sinai Peninsula in Africa and northeast Asia, and it is also the territory of Egypt. More than 90% of the whole territory is desert, and cultivated land, population and cities are mainly concentrated in the narrow plains along the Nile River and its estuary delta where it enters the sea. With a total length of more than 6,600 kilometers, the Nile is the longest river in the world. It originated in the eastern plateau of Africa and flowed into the Mediterranean Sea from south to north. Cairo, the capital, is the most populous city in Arab countries. Alexandria is an important seaport of Egypt in the Mediterranean. The Suez Canal between the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea connects the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea, and the voyage from the Atlantic Ocean to the Indian Ocean is 8000- 10000 km shorter than that around the Cape of Good Hope in Africa. In the past, Egypt was a country dominated by agriculture, and long-staple cotton has always been a famous export commodity in Egypt. In recent years, Egypt's oil, canals, remittances and tourism revenues have surpassed cotton and become the main economic pillar of Egypt. The pyramids and other places of interest in Egypt are the main tourist attractions.

52. Western Europe Europe borders the Arctic Ocean in the north and the Mediterranean Sea in the south. The coastline is very tortuous. Scandinavia is in the north of the main peninsula, and Iberia, Apennine and Margain are in the south. The main islands are the British Isles and Iceland. The main inland seas are the Baltic Sea in the north, the Mediterranean Sea in the south and the Black Sea in the southeast. The Mediterranean Sea lies between Europe, Asia and Africa, and the west is connected with the Atlantic Ocean through the Strait of Gibraltar. The North Sea is an important marginal sea. 55. France is the largest country in Western Europe. The terrain dominated by plains and hills, mild and humid climate and fertile soil are all conducive to the development of agriculture. The horticulture industry in the southwest and the Mediterranean coast is developed, especially the production of grapes, and the wine produced is world-famous. At present, France is the largest exporter of agricultural products in Europe. Paris, the capital, is a world-famous tourist attraction. Eiffel Tower, Arc de Triomphe, Pompidou Center and Notre Dame are famous tourist attractions. At the same time, Paris is also a famous fashion and cosmetics center. French cooking is world-famous. 58. The territory of Russia is170,000 square kilometers. It is the largest country in the world. The European part concentrates three-quarters of the country's population. The capital Moscow is located in the center of Europe. The Volga River, the longest river in Europe, originates in the hilly area of the western plain of Eastern Europe and flows into the Caspian Sea. Lake Baikal is located in Siberia and is the deepest lake in the world.

There are 50 white five-pointed stars on the American flag. There are 48 states on the mainland, located in Alaska in the northwest corner of North America and Hawaii near the Tropic of Cancer in the Pacific Ocean. The full name of the United States is "United States of America". The United States covers an area of more than 9.3 million square kilometers, ranking fourth in the world. White people account for more than 80% of the American population, and Chinese and overseas Chinese are in San Francisco and new york. In recent decades, many people have moved from the northeast to the "sunshine zone" in the south and west. America is the country that exports the most agricultural products in the world. Another feature of American agriculture is the specialization of regional production. American agricultural production can be divided into cotton belt, corn belt, wheat belt, dairy belt, animal husbandry and irrigated agricultural areas. The United States is the country that exports the most industrial and agricultural products and has the largest output value in the world, and imports the most automobiles, steel, petroleum and textiles. The distribution of American industry can be divided into three regions. Northeast China: new york is the largest industrial and commercial center and port along the Atlantic coast. Southern region: Houston is the research and development center of petrochemical industry and aerospace in southern China. Western region: California is the most economically developed region in the west, San Francisco is a big port in the west, and the nearby "Silicon Valley" is a new electronic industry center. Los Angeles is the most populous city and seaport in the west, mainly producing airplanes and precision machinery. Hollywood here is the center of American film and television industry, and San Francisco and Los Angeles are also the cities with the largest number of Chinese in the United States. That's all. You can look for it on People's Education Online.