What are the climatic characteristics of Santiago and Montevideo?

1. Sea, land and navigation rights

The surface of the earth is divided into different countries, some of which have large populations. For example, China has a population of over 65.438+0 billion, accounting for 654.38+0/4 of the global population. Some are vast and sparsely populated, such as Iceland with only 250,000 people. In terms of composition, Canada and Switzerland are multilingual countries, the United States and the Soviet Union are multinational countries, and Belgium is a multicultural country. Political geography is to analyze the emergence, development and characteristics of a country and discuss the influence of geographical environment on national system and political decision-making. At the same time, it also studies international relations and discusses the contradictions and coordination between big countries and small countries, rich countries and poor countries. This is of great significance to the future of mankind in the world. At the beginning of the 20th century, German geographer Ratze's theory of national organism, British Mackinder's theory of mainland hinterland and American Bowman's theory of national self-determination all made many expositions on global strategy and international politics from the perspective of geography. These discourses were later distorted by German Nazi geographer karl haushofer, who defended his foreign aggression with the theory of "living space" and was condemned by later geographers. At the beginning of this century, conservative political geographers focused on explaining the importance of the ocean. Sea power is regarded as an important foundation for becoming a world power, so both Britain, America and Germany have plans to expand their navies. 1890, American navy general Alfred T. Mahan (1840 ~ 19 14) strongly advocated the necessity of American navy expansion. He believes that the flexibility of the navy can give Britain and the United States an advantage over land-based countries, and his statement is of great help to American naval bases in the Caribbean and the Pacific. He pointed out that only vast land, no strong national strength; Only by cooperating with the navy can we have military strength, which is sea power. The so-called sea power is the combination of navy, base and safe air route. With sea power, land can be controlled by the ocean. What needs to be controlled are: straits, peninsulas, islands and canals. The English Channel, Gibraltar Strait, Red Sea Strait, Malacca Strait, Taiwan Province Strait, Ma Haixia Strait, Bering Strait and Da Daniil Strait are listed. Alaska, kamchatka peninsula, Korean Peninsula, Indian zhina Peninsula, Turkish, Greek, Italian, Brunei and other peninsulas. These islands are Iceland, British Isles, Malta, Cyprus, Sri Lanka, Crete, Philippines, Taiwan Province Province, China, Ryukyu and Japan. Canal mainly refers to Panama, Suez, Kiel Canal, etc. However, Mahan's sea power theory did not take into account the progress of land transportation, which could prevent the naval attack. Before he died, he didn't see the superiority of naval power in the First World War. He didn't expect that 19 15, when the flagship of the British navy invaded the Black Sea, it would be defeated by the weak Turkish army. Mackinder, a British geographer, predicted at the end of 19 that the "Columbian era" was over and the world powers had taken control of the ocean. Contrary to Mahan's popular sea power argument at that time, he believed that the emerging enemy threatening British naval hegemony was land power across Eurasia, not sea power, and said that the European era in history was about to pass, just as the river era and the Mediterranean era had disappeared. 1904, Max read the paper "The Geographical Hub of History" at the Royal Society. He said that the world is a whole, and Europe, Asia and Africa are a world island. The United States and Australia are outlying islands; The border area between Europe and Asia, starting from the Volga River of the Soviet Union in the west, the Yellow River of China in the east, Siberia in the north and India in the south, is the heart of the world. He also said: "Whoever can control Eastern Europe can control the heart zone, and whoever can control the heart zone can control the world island; Who can rule the world island, who can rule the world. "Mai's land ownership theory was popular in political geography at that time for a period of time. It is believed that Europe, Asia, Africa and the United States are the continents with the largest population, the richest resources and the largest area, so they are the focus of human life. The area is far from the sea, and there is an iron wall, so there is no need to worry about foreign invasion. Most of its rivers flow into the Arctic Ocean. This is an inland lake with no communication with the ocean. It is really the strongest base in the world. Maxwell's theory has its indelible value, but there are also many places that can be revised. The main points are as follows: First, when Maxwell published his paper, he didn't realize the rapid development of aviation technology today. Long-range aircraft and intercontinental missiles are enough to shorten the distance of the world, and any point in the heart is within the bombing range of the enemy, so it is not absolutely safe. Second, Maxwell's theory was voted by Mercator all over the world.

The influence of shadow mapping ignores the global shape. This kind of map is a cylindrical plane projection, and its geographical area in the north latitude is particularly vast, so it is considered that the Arctic Ocean is vast and inviolable. In fact, its area is only 6.5438+0.4 million square kilometers, only 2.5 times that of the Mediterranean. The use of icebreakers and the underwater navigation of submarines have been unimpeded. Flying over the North Pole at the same time is the shortest route connecting the eastern and western hemispheres. Therefore, the Arctic Ocean is not only unable to protect the security of Siberia, but also a shortcut for the air force and intercontinental missiles in northern soviet strike. In other words, the Arctic region passes through a big arc, and it is the transportation hub of the world today. The Arctic, once considered indestructible, is now the most threatened and stressed area. Just as the Soviet Union defeated Germany in World War II and possessed the "heartland" of Eurasia, Professor N.J.Spykman, an American political geographer and professor of Yale University, wrote the book "American Strategy", arguing that Mackinder's potential for the heartland of the mainland was overestimated. He pointed out that it connects Norway, Sweden, Western Europe, Italy, Yugoslavia and the Balkans.

The line between the Middle East, India, Chinese mainland and the Korean Peninsula is the "inner crescent zone" around the center of the mainland, also known as the "marginal zone". The line connecting Iceland, the British Isles, Bilian Peninsula, the coast of North Africa, Aden, Sri Lanka, Indochina Peninsula, the Philippines, Taiwan Province Province, China, Ryukyu, Japan and Thousand Islands is the "Outer Crescent Belt". He believes that the marginal zone is sandwiched between the mainland and the ocean, which happens to be a buffer zone between land-based countries and sea-based countries. He also revised Mackinder's three famous sayings to become: "Who can control the edge?" Whoever can rule Eurasia can control the fate of the world. "Since the Italian Air Force General Doukhi put forward the theory of air power, everyone thinks that' air power can determine the fate of war', and countries are competing to develop aviation in order to compete for air power. During World War II, the Air Force won. At the same time, the discovery of the Arctic route made people feel more deeply that the earth is spherical, and the distance between the eastern and western hemispheres, especially the distance between the United States and the Soviet Union, suddenly narrowed. During this period, Germany invented missiles, the United States invented atomic bombs, and now intercontinental missiles, and then developed artificial satellites, spacecraft landing on the moon, and orbital missiles. Thus, mankind entered the space age. The current political geography, including the ground, ocean and space, is really a three-dimensional space "above, he searched the green void, below, yellow spring".

Second, the evaluation of national factors.

To measure a country's political geography, we must first evaluate its area, shape, border, location and capital.

On the ground, countries vary in size, as big as the Soviet Union, reaching 22.4 million square kilometers, accounting for 1/6 of the global land area, even larger than South America; As small as Luxembourg, it is only 2586 square kilometers; Countries as big as the mainland include Australia, Canada, the United States, China and Brazil. The area is about 6,543,800 square kilometers. Followed by India, Argentina and Zaire. For example, Britain has 244,000 square kilometers, the Netherlands has 40,000 square kilometers, and Lebanon 1000 square kilometers. The size of a country does not necessarily reflect its importance in international affairs. For example, Brazil is 30 times bigger than Britain, but internationally, Brazil is not more important than Britain. A vast country has both advantages and disadvantages. The advantage is that there is a retreat in wartime. At the same time, with a large territory, there will naturally be more agriculture and minerals, and a large territory will also be good for the national psychology. For example, nationals of the United States, the Soviet Union, China, Canada, Australia and Brazil are often confident. The disadvantage of vast territory is that remote areas are not easy to reach the central heart. For example, if Canada did not complete the 1880 Pacific Railway, the inland grasslands of Canada would not be connected with the densely populated east, and the inland grasslands of Canada would probably be incorporated into the United States. Similarly, the Far East of the Soviet Union is far from the center, but closer to the heart of China. Therefore, the completion of trans-siberian railway is very important for connecting the eastern and western parts of the Soviet Union. Although the traffic route can solve the problem of dividing the vast territory, it also increases the transportation cost. Countries with small territory are facing the problem of lack of resources and inability to develop various economic undertakings. There are more than 20% countries in the world with an annual national income of only $654.38+0 billion. The United States, the Soviet Union, Japan and other countries are more than 654.38+00 billion, and so are China, Mexico and India. Like many countries in Central America, except Mexico, their total annual income is actually less than 1983 1/3 of that of American General Motors.

Countries with different shapes occupy a certain territory and space, and the shape and size of space are different. The spatial shape of a country can be roughly divided into blocks, and its periphery is roughly equidistant from the central area, such as Spain, France, Poland, Brazil, etc., all of which have this complete geometric shape; Long and narrow, the territory extends in a certain direction, such as Chile, Norway, Italy and Japan. In such a long and narrow country, like Chile; The north and south are long and narrow, called meridian country; Like Indonesia, countries that extend from east to west are called latitude countries. Some countries are geographically dispersed, such as the Philippines, Indonesia, Japan and Malaysia, and can only reach the other end of the country by water or air. The Philippines is made up of a group of islands in the ocean, while Japan is made up of four big islands. Like Italy and Malaysia, it is a peninsula.

Countries with scattered shapes often have difficulties in unifying territory. For example, in 1947, Pakistan was divided into two parts, east and west, separated by thousands of miles, and the middle was blocked by northern India, which is an obvious example. West Pakistan has a vast territory, rich resources and political and economic advantages. East Pakistan has a large population and is relatively poor and backward. Both East Pakistan and West Pakistan believe in Islam, but the appeal of the teachings is not strong enough, leading to civil war. East Pakistan became Bangladesh in 197 1 year.

There must be boundaries between border countries, and the demarcation of national boundaries is the main cause of international disputes. To demarcate national boundaries, we must first have a treaty, and then demarcate them on the map and mark them on the ground. It looks very simple. In fact, there are many problems due to insufficient information, inaccurate maps and rugged ground. The most obvious example is that when Argentina and Chile signed a treaty in 188 1, it was no problem to take the top of the Andes, that is, the dividing line between the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean, as the border between the two countries. Little did they know that the rivers in the eastern Andes gradually cut the peaks and flowed into the Pacific Ocean. Because the border movement almost triggered the war between the two countries, the border was finally arbitrarily set at 1920, which was safe, but it was still a controversial reason. From the human phenomenon, some national boundaries are even more controversial because of different races or the discovery of new minerals.

The cause of the noise. The dispute between Ethiopia and Somalia over Ogaden in East Africa is a good example. From the perspective of Somalia, Ethiopia, southern Kenya and Djibouti all belong to the Somali people. Unfortunately, uranium deposits were discovered in Ogaden, which increased the complexity of the border. By 1980, the conflict between the two countries for Ogaden continued, and the Soviet Union and Cuba sided with Ethiopia, while the United States supported Somalia, which further aggravated the conflict.

At present, the land surface of the earth has been divided into different political regions by human beings, and even in Antarctica, it has been divided into various territories by Argentina, New Zealand, Australia, Norway, Chile, Britain, France and other countries. The international boundary on land has been demarcated and there is no room for expansion. Some countries just want to extend their borders to the sea. Before 1950, most countries recognized that it belonged to the international "high seas" 3 miles from the coast. However, after 1950, many countries expanded their territorial waters in order to expand their fishing grounds and obtain coastal mineral resources, especially oil and natural gas. After 197 1, more than 10% of South American countries actually extended their territorial waters beyond 230 nautical miles. In order to change this situation, the United Nations holds conferences on the law of the sea year after year, and in 1982, it formulated the International Maritime Public Law, which stipulates that the territorial sea can only extend to 12 nautical mile, and that the economic circle can extend to 200 nautical miles to obtain legal economic exploitation. At the same time, it also stipulates that navies of various countries can sail freely in important strategic ports. However, the United States, Turkey, Israel and Venezuela disapprove of this provision on the grounds that although some countries have cobalt, nickel and other minerals on the coastal seabed, they lack mining technology, and such mineral resources should be controlled by the international community. This territorial dispute has affected the global 1/3 sea surface, which represents the current concept of territorial sea in various countries and is also an important practical issue in political geography.

Regional countries occupy a certain position in the surface space. Position can be divided into absolute position and relative position. The former means that there is a certain latitude and longitude on the ground, which will not change once it is determined. The latter means that a country has relations with other countries, and the importance of this position will change with time. For example, a country used to be the center of trade routes, and its relative position was very important, but once the international trade center moved, its relative position was not important. Absolute position is for a country, especially for latitude. Obviously, the regional climate of high latitude and low latitude is not conducive to the emergence of advanced political forms, but this is not absolute. For example, in India at low latitudes, its ancient culture is widely spread, but its own politics has long been in a slave position. This contradiction is hard to explain. Tropical diseases abound in India, and famines often occur at the same time, which may be related to the natural environment, but the political evolution mostly depends on social organizations. The four-tier system of Indian society has nothing to do with climate! The relative position depends on the relationship with the sea and the distance from it. Some countries are maritime and some are continental, but we can't be arbitrary about this. Although the south of India is surrounded by the sea on three sides, India is by no means a sea power country, and residents have not been engaged in marine undertakings for a long time. Naturally, India is not the only country that goes to sea but does not engage in marine undertakings. There are many other countries. At the same time, the importance of the ocean's influence on a country changes with time. For example, Britain's relative position, isolated from the European continent in the earliest period, was not invaded by foreign countries, but it was able to maintain its independence. Today, its relative position just enables it to develop into the ocean and has a bright future. Like France, it is bordered by land on one side and the sea on three sides. This position is sometimes

Its advantages sometimes become its weaknesses, so its relative position changes with the times. Another example is an inland country far from the sea, which didn't feel any inconvenience before, but after19th century, it seems backward and inferior compared with the countries near the sea. Surrounded by other countries, these landlocked countries do not have their own seaports. If something goes wrong in neighboring countries, the commercial road will be threatened immediately, and the domestic economy will also go wrong. This was the case in Switzerland during the two world wars. Therefore, this landlocked country tries its best to communicate with the ocean. There are only three ways to communicate: the first way is to communicate with the ocean through international rivers, which is the product of18th century. People think that rivers cannot be monopolized by one country, such as the Danube in Europe, which is an international river that can connect Switzerland, Austria, the Czech Republic and Hungary. After the First World War, due to the disintegration of Austria-Hungary, many countries in Central Europe did not have seaports. Therefore, when the Treaty of Versailles was drafted, other major rivers in Europe, such as the Rhine, Elbe, Oder and Vistula, also became international rivers and were enjoyed by all countries. The second way is through the land tunnel, that is, through other countries, divided into 1 corridor. The Polish Corridor is a good example, which separates Germany from East Prussia. After World War I, Poland and the newly established port of Gdynia can be connected with the Baltic Sea. A modern example is Zaire in Africa, which extends from a narrow place to the Atlantic Ocean and from Israel to the Gulf of Aqaba. Most coastal countries are reluctant to cut land. The third is the modern method, which enables landlocked countries to reach Haikou through other countries and make Haikou a free city. In principle, it has been adopted at the 192 1 free exchange conference, which can enable landlocked countries to benefit from access to the sea, but coastal countries may not necessarily abide by this principle. This kind of landlocked country is the largest in Africa, accounting for more than half. For example, Mali relies on the passage from Ghana to the port of Abidjan. Passing through other countries, it is inevitable to be blocked. Even if it is not blocked, it will cost a lot of money to undertake heavy cargo transportation, which is not cost-effective, not to mention that Mali is actually the poorest country in the world. The above-mentioned difficulties of landlocked countries' access to the sea are not limited to Europe and Africa, but only because the number of European and African countries is much larger than that of other continents, so the problem becomes more serious. In Latin America, there are also two landlocked countries with no exports, namely Paraguay and Bolivia. Paraguay has an excellent river, the Paraguay River, but Argentina and Uruguay control the estuary of this river. As for Bolivia, because Peru and Chile refused to discuss the use of the Aarika in the Pacific Ocean, Bolivia never went to the sea. Some methods and ideas can be applied in Europe, but not in South America. This is also the cultural environment of different places!

The location of the capital is related to the security of a country. It is the nerve center of a country and the guiding center of people's life. This is an important topic in political geography. Geographer VanghamCornish put forward that there are three conditions for building a capital: (1) fork in the road. The place where the capital is located must be the transportation center of a country. In ancient times, land and air transportation was underdeveloped, and waterway as an important traffic condition was particularly valued.

② the barn. The capital is a consumer city, and food is indispensable every day. There must be a food-rich area nearby. This is the classic.

Economic conditions.

3 fortress. The safety of the capital is paramount, so it is necessary to choose those places that are easy to defend, such as oceans, forests and rivers, which can be used to strengthen defense. This is a national defense condition. The above situation belongs to geographical factors. However, the location of the capital is not limited to geographical conditions, but also influenced by history. For example, Washington, the capital of the United States, was established when 1776 became independent. At that time, there were only 13 states in the territory of the United States, but among these 13 states, Washington was in a middle position, and its borders expanded westward, but countries did not move any more. Another example is the Italian capital Rome. Since the Roman Empire, the Italian Peninsula has been controlling the three islands of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica in the era of reunification, forming a complete political space with tyrrhenian sea as the inner lake and Rome as the center. However, the regional focus of Italy has recently shifted to the Po River basin, but the capital is still in Rome, but it has not moved. Some countries, such as Turkey, have moved their capitals because of the change of territory or national policies, and the capital is Constantinople along the coast, which is convenient for shipping. After World War I, the inland became more important and moved to Ankara. Another example is Japan. In the lock-up era, the national strength was concentrated in the southwest half, and the capital was located in Kyoto, the inland sea of Seto, which can be said to be in a medium position. In the Pacific era, the national strength was oriented to the Asian continent, and shipping along the southeast coast was more important, far exceeding the Japanese coast in the north. Times have changed, and the capital has moved from Kyoto to Tokyo. Throughout the location of capitals, it can be roughly divided into two categories: one is located in coastal cities, which can be called Haidu; One is inland, which can be called land capital.

The ocean can be divided into the following forms:

(1) The development of the ocean to the ocean-making more use of peninsulas, islands, straits and straits, expanding territory to the ocean and emigrating overseas. For example, Athens in Greece lies between the Aegean Sea and the Milton Sea. The bay is deep and the situation is dangerous. Another example is Rome on the Italian peninsula, which faces tyrrhenian sea and lives on the peninsula. Genoa, once the center of an independent country, faces the Ligurian Sea; Venice, located at the top of Adriatic Sea and Pisa, is a dangerous place. Another example is London, Edinburgh and Cardiff in Britain. The former is located between the North Sea and the English Channel, while the latter two have their own deep bays, Breddo Bay and Foss Bay, all of which have geographical advantages. Another example is Copenhagen, Denmark, which controls the Songde Strait and connects the throats of the Baltic Sea and the North Sea. Its status is extremely high.

(2) Land and sea developers-Since Europeans migrated to North and South America, Africa and Oceania in the16th century, the capitals or administrative centers of independent countries developed from colonies are mostly in coastal areas. However, when white immigrants gradually expand inland in order to absorb the supply of overseas motherland, such strongholds, such as those who moved from the sea to the land, are in a superior position and often become the capital of independent new countries. The above-mentioned Washington, USA is an example. In addition, Havana in Cuba, Caracas in Venezuela, Lima in Peru, Buenos Aires in Argentina, Montevideo in Uruguay, Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, Santiago in Chile, Wellington in New Zealand and many European colonial countries in Africa all belong to this type.

(3) Economic decisions of many countries in Haidu. Although it is a coastal country or even an island country, it is not a country with sea power, but it is not a white colony, but an independent country based on agriculture, and its capital is also in the coastal areas. This is a coastal area with the richest climate and the most advantageous economy in China, so it has become a national capital, such as Colombo in Sri Lanka, Jakarta in Indonesia, Stockholm in Sweden, Helsinki in Finland, Bangkok in Thailand, Yangon in Myanmar, Hanoi in Vietnam, Manila in the Philippines, The Hague in the Netherlands and Lisbon in Portugal.

The so-called land capital can have the following different types:

(1) The land capital is located in the center of the mainland-mainland countries generally have short coastlines and slightly square, rectangular or nearly circular territory. The capital is located in the center of the country, with convenient transportation and national defense security, such as Warsaw in Poland, Moscow in medieval Russia, Madrid in Spain, Ankara in Turkey and Berlin in Germany.

(2) Land capitals due to economic factors-some even close to the border, do not meet the needs of national defense security, but are located in a suitable climate and an important economic zone, becoming national capitals. For example, Tehran, the capital of Iran with more rainfall and developed economy in the north, is an example. The rest, such as Baghdad in Iraq, Damascus in Syria, Amman in Jordan, Jerusalem in Israel and Riyadh in Saudi Arabia, are all located in the economic center of the country.

(3) Due to traffic factors-there are also major transportation centers in China. The so-called traffic is mainly rivers and roads. Modern national capital is the center of railway transportation, and it is often decided to be a national capital first, and then build a railway from this as a starting point, radiating in all directions. Paris, located in the Seine Valley, is the center of the waterway system and later the railway. Cairo, Egypt, is the shipping destination of the Nile, which has since fanned out into the sea. Vienna in Hungary, Budapest and Belgrade in Yugoslavia are all shipping and transportation hubs of the Danube. Baghdad, Iraq, where the Euphrates and Tigris rivers meet, is not only the economic center of Iraq, but also the transportation center of the country. In addition, some important land transportation stations have become national capitals, such as Kabul in Afghanistan. Afghanistan is an arid plateau country. Animal husbandry is the main industry and irrigation is the main agriculture. Kabul was chosen as the national capital because it is quite close to the Haibei Pass in the east and occupies a superior position on the ancient trade route between India and Central Asia.

(4) Due to the topographical factors-equatorial low latitude, it is hot all year round, so it is not suitable for living. Highland land, with suitable temperature, is suitable for population gathering. Except Panama, all the countries in China and America are in the inland plateau. For example, Mexico City faces the sea on both sides, with an altitude of more than 2,000 meters and a cool climate. It is the national capital. Other examples are Bogota, the capital of Colombia, at an altitude of 26 10 meters, Quito, the capital of Ecuador, at an altitude of 2,850 meters, and La Paz, the capital of Bolivia, at an altitude of 3,600 meters. In the northeast corner of Africa, Ethiopia, which is also an inland plateau with an altitude of 2,500 meters, has a cool climate and developed agriculture and animal husbandry, and was chosen as the national capital.

(5) Due to other cultural factors-the capital of Canada, Ottawa is chosen instead of other middle-ranking cities, such as Toronto, Winnipeg or Victoria, because it is a densely populated area in southeastern Canada, accounting for about two-thirds of the national population. And it is on the border between the corporate area (3.5 million) and the British area (6.5 million). In the population of this city, the legal person accounts for 1/3, and the British account for 2/3, which just represents the proportion of the whole nation. Another example is Canberra, the capital of Australia, which is influenced by national politics. Before 1927, the capital of Australia was Sydney, which was the largest commercial port in China with a population of one million, equivalent to 1/7 of the total population of Australia. Congress believes that the national capital should not be located in a densely populated metropolis, nor should it be located on the land of one state, which makes other States feel unfair. Therefore, in New South Wales, 2,434 square kilometers of land has been designated as the federal capital for the following reasons.