Examples of people in the field of philosophy, such as Xunzi's

Emmanuel Kant (1724-1804) is a German philosopher, astronomer, one of the founders of the nebula theory and the founder of German classical idealism.

Overview of life

Immanuel Kant was born in1April 22nd, 724, and entered the University of Koenigsberg in 1740. From 1746, I worked as a tutor for 4 years. 1755 completed his university studies, obtained the qualification of a supernumerary lecturer, and served as 15 lecturer. During this period, Kant became more and more famous as a teacher and writer. Besides teaching physics and mathematics, he also teaches logic, metaphysics, moral philosophy, firearms and architecture, physical geography and so on. During the period of 65438+1960s, the main works in this period are: A Study on the Clarity of Natural Theology and Moral Principles (1764), An Attempt to Introduce the Concept of Negative Numbers into Philosophy (1763), and The Only Possible Root of the Argument of the Existence of God (1763). Dream of Epiphany (1766) tests all views on the spiritual world. 1770 was appointed as a professor of logic and metaphysics. In the same year, he published The Forms and Principles of Feeling and Reason. From 178 1, a series of great original works covering a wide range of fields were published in 9 years, which brought a revolution in philosophy and thought in a short time. Such as Critique of Pure Reason (178 1), Critique of Practical Reason (1788) and Critique of Judgment (1790). 1793 was accused of abusing philosophy, distorting and despising the basic teachings of Christianity after the publication of Religion in Rational Scope; So the government asked Kant not to talk about religious issues in his speeches and works. However, after the death of King 1797, he revisited this issue in his last important paper, Debate between Colleges (1798). The transition from the highest principle of natural science to physics could have been an important supplement to Kant's philosophy, but this book was not completed. 1804 died in February 12.

"There are two things. The deeper and longer I think about them, the more amazing and awe they arouse in my mind. This is the starry sky above my head and the moral law in my heart. " This is one of the most magnificent maxims in the history of human thought. It is engraved on Kant's tombstone and comes from the last chapter of Kant's Critique of Practical Reason.

1February 804 12 in the morning 1 1, Emanuel Kant died in his hometown of Connersburg. Kant died haggard, with only a handful of bones left, and his body lay there like a mummy. Besides, his body is indeed displayed like a mummy: residents of Connors Castle line up to pay tribute to the city's greatest son. It was cold at that time, and the land was too frozen to dig. Kant's body was buried after 16 days.

When Kant died, he seemed to be just a shadow of himself. In the years before his death, his body and spirit were extremely weak, and Kant, as a philosopher, had only one shadow left. At that time, Fichte, Schelling and Hegel were the most important figures in German philosophy, and they were the leaders of German idealism. 1799, Kant published his last article-On the Relationship between Scientology and Fichte's Scientology. In this sealed book, Kant's evaluation of Fichte's philosophy of science is that it is worthless. This is Kant's last words as a philosopher, and from then on he bid farewell to the philosophical stage-he completed his mission.

After his death, Kant soon changed from the shadow of philosophy to a superstar in the sky of human thought. Karl karl jaspers (1883 ~ 1969), a famous German contemporary philosopher and the founder of modern existential philosophy, is called "endless" with Kant, Plato (about 427-347 BC) and Augustine (354-430 BC).

Life overview 2:

Kant was born in Connersburg, the capital of East Prussia (K? Nigsberg), when he was born, the Prussian king Friedrich William I, known as the "Military Lord of War", had ruled there for 1 1 year.

Kant's father was a saddle maker and his parents were Protestant Pietismus. Pietism emphasizes religious spirit and attaches importance to religious feelings. Kant's spiritual world as a child was deeply influenced by pietism. At the age of eight, Kant began to go to school. The school advocates humanistic education and opposes the ideological rigidity brought by religion. School education changed Kant's religious attitude, and he began to dislike religious prayer and church singing for a lifetime. It is also because of school education that he began to doubt the religion based on feelings and feelings, and his religious philosophy was simply a reaction to the devout.

1740, Kant entered the University of Connersburg. People can't verify what major he registered at that time, but what is certain is that he often takes philosophy classes. 1748, graduated from Kant University at the age of 24, because his father died two years ago, and his future was bleak. As there was no place for him in the university, he decided to be a tutor in a small town near Connersburg.

Kant once said that no tutor is worse than him. In fact, he is very modest because all the students he has taught have a good reputation for him. During his time as a tutor, he published his first book, Reflections on the Real Estimation of Vitality, which was about the philosophical and scientific propositions put forward by Descartes, Newton and Leibniz. After five years as a tutor, Kant returned to Connaugsburg, and he never left his hometown again. After returning to his hometown, Kant entered the university again. 1755, Kant got a master's degree in "General History of Nature and Theory of Celestial Bodies". Three months later, he was qualified as a private teaching assistant in the university and began to teach philosophy. As a personal teaching assistant, Kant worked for 15 years, and the tuition of students became his source of life. Because Kant's class is very popular, many students are willing to listen to his class, so he also has a good time.

As a teaching assistant, Kant began to publish his works frequently. His subjects are all-encompassing, from natural science, aesthetics, theology and even witchcraft, but there is only one question throughout, that is, how to conduct philosophical research: from a rational point of view, deduce the truth about things from universal truth or experience, and draw universal conclusions through observation?

Kant's works and lectures made him a respected philosopher, and his influence began to leave Connaught Castle. Many students came here to become his disciples, the most famous of which was Herder, who, together with Goethe and Schiller, became the pillar of Weimar classicism. However, Kant didn't get a professorship for a long time. During this period, he refused the professorship of poetry art offered by the University of Connersburg. He also turned down professorships at Herun University and Jena University. He just wants to be a philosophy professor at the University of Connaugsburg, because he doesn't want to leave his hometown and his physical condition doesn't allow him to move to another country. In a letter to a friend, Kant said: "My chest is very narrow, and there is little room for heart and lung activities. I was born with depression, and even when I was a child, I was very tired of the world. "

1770, 46-year-old Kant finally got the position of professor of logic and metaphysics at the University of Connersburg. His inaugural report is entitled "The Form and Foundation of the Perceptual and Intellectual World". After becoming a professor, Kant was silent for ten years without publishing an article, but devoted himself to studying his critical philosophy. 178 1 published Critique of Pure Reason. Only with this book can Kant establish his immortal position in the history of philosophy.

Hegel

Name: George William Friedrich Hegel.

Date of birth:1August 27th, 770 (Stuttgart, Germany)

Death: 183 1 year 1 1 month 14 (Berlin, Germany)

Genre: hegelianism

Main fields: logic, historical philosophy, aesthetics, religion, metaphysics, epistemology and political science.

Affected by Aristotle, Anselmus, Descartes, Spinoza, Goethe, Jacob Beme, Rousseau, Kant, Fichte and Schelling.

Shi influenced: Feuerbach, Marx, Engels, Lenin, Bruno Bauer, Trotsky, Bradley, Heidegger, Sartre, Barthes, Habermas, Gadamer.

all one's life

German philosopher georg wilhelm Friedrich georg wilhelm friedrich hegel (1770-183165438+1October 14) was born in Stuttgart, the capital of Wü rttemberg, southwest Germany. /kloc-at the age of 0/8, he entered the University of Tubingen (a Protestant seminary in Wü rttemberg), where he became friends with Holdrin and Schelling. At the same time, he was deeply attracted by the works of Spinoza, Kant and Rousseau and the French Revolution. 180 1 year, 30-year-old Hegel taught at the University of Jena until 1829, when he became the president of the University of Berlin. 183 1 died in Berlin, Germany.

Hegel's theory

Hegel, together with the epic poet Holderlin and the objective idealist Schelling, studied at Tubingen Theological Seminary. After deeply observing the whole evolution of the French Revolution, the three men jointly criticized Kant and his successor Fichte's idealistic philosophy.

Hegel's first and most important work is Phenomenology of Spirit. His other works published before his death include The Complete Works of Philosophy, Logic and Philosophy of Law. Other works on philosophy of history, philosophy of religion, aesthetics and history of philosophy were all compiled after his death according to the notes made by students during their speeches that year.

Hegel's works are famous for their wide coverage. He established a huge system to understand the history of philosophy and the world we live in-in Hegel's view, this world is usually regarded as "a kind of historical progress, in which each successive movement seems to be solving the contradiction in the previous movement." For example, he thought that the French Revolution was the first time in human history that real freedom was introduced into western society. But because it was the absolute first time, it was also absolutely radical: after the revolution eliminated its opposite, the violent climax aroused by the revolution could not be cured, and the final result was that the desperate revolution finally ate its own fruit-the hard-won freedom was self-destructed by the brutal terrorist rule. However, history always advances in the self-study of mistakes: it is this experience and only after this experience that a constitutional government composed of free citizens can not only exercise the duties of a rational government, but also realize the revolutionary ideal of freedom and equality.

Hegel said in the Preface of Historical Philosophy: "Philosophy shows that consciousness exists in its infinite concept, that is, consciousness exists in a free and infinite form, and the relatively abstract form of introspection is only its reflection. Consciousness is free, independent and individual, and belongs only to the spirit. "

Therefore, as a separate concept, "consciousness" consists of two parts, each of which has an infinite number of "forms", one of which is a principle, and the other is a concrete reflection of every historical event, so he added: "Consciousness in the usual sense has two aspects, on the one hand, the overall concept of things, and on the other hand, the abstract concept of specific reactions to things." At the same time, he said: "Everyone has different self-awareness and different reactions to things, which deviates from his sense of principle, but for a normal person, this deviation is limited, which depends on his normal state and his respect for God. The degree of understanding of this concept belongs to the category of metaphysics. "

Therefore, although Hegel's language is difficult to understand, he expounds that metaphysics must study the mechanism of how propositions and counter-propositions in every event are related, so it is necessary to compare the examples in every historical event with their prototypes to understand their similarities and differences. Hegel's teleological view of human society is rich in content and difficult to understand, which puzzles modern readers. Not only that, but his thoughts also run counter to the existential philosophy and the concept of individual rights popular in modern intellectual circles.

Many people think that Hegel's thought symbolizes the peak of German idealistic philosophy movement in the19th century, and has a far-reaching influence on later philosophical schools such as existentialism and Marxist historical materialism. What's more, because Hegel's political thought has both the essence of liberalism and conservatism, his philosophy undoubtedly provides a new way for those who feel that liberalism is facing challenges because they can't realize their personal needs and reflect the basic values of mankind.

Hegel's legacy

Hegel's theory has long been controversial in later generations. He has a wide influence in the ideological circle, and almost any school has affirmed or criticized his theory.

Historians divide Hegelians into two camps. The representative of Hegel's right wing is a follower of Humboldt University in Berlin. They supported evangelical orthodoxy and political conservatism in the post-Napoleonic era.

Hegel's famous saying

"I saw Napoleon, the soul of the world, visiting the city. It really gives me a strange feeling to see such a great man. He's on horseback, he's here, and he's focused on this. He wants to reach the whole world and rule the world. "

"We can assert that there is no great cause without passion."

"What is reasonable exists, and what exists is reasonable. (vernünftig is, das is Wirklich. This is mine and this is mine. ) "This sentence comes from the book Grundlinien der philosophy des rechts1820.

"The abstraction of reality is the destruction of reality" (from der wirklich keit geltendmachen, hei? t Wirklichkeit zerst？ Ren. )

Descartes

First, Descartes' life.

Descartes1March 3, 5961was born in Toulouse, France. Descartes' father was a member of the local council of Brittany and a judge of the local court. Descartes lived a carefree life in his childhood. He was sickly when he was a child, and has been taken care of by a nanny since his mother died. He is full of curiosity about the things around him. Seeing that he has the temperament of a philosopher, his father affectionately called him a "little philosopher".

Father hoped Descartes would become a theologian in the future, so when Descartes was eight years old, he sent him to a Jesuit school in Lafleur for a classical education. In order to take care of his weak body, the school chartered him not to be bound by school rules, not to go to school in the morning and to study in bed. So he has developed the habit of being quiet and good at thinking since he was a child.

Descartes 16 12 went to the University of Poitiers to study law, and received his doctorate four years later. After Descartes finished his studies in 16 16, he deviated from his family's professional tradition and began to explore the road of life. He joined the army and wanted to take the opportunity to travel around Europe and broaden his horizons.

Several experiences during this period had a great influence on him. Once, Descartes was walking in the street and came across a notice offering a reward for a math problem. Two days later, Descartes actually solved this problem, which attracted the attention of the famous scholar Isaac Pickman. Pickermann introduced Descartes to the latest development of mathematics and gave him many problems to be studied.

With the communication with Pickman, Descartes had a full understanding of his mathematical and scientific abilities, and he began to seriously explore whether there were universal methods similar to mathematics in order to acquire real knowledge.

It is said that Descartes had three strange dreams in one night. The first dream was that Descartes was blown by the storm where the wind could not; The second dream is that he got the key to open the treasure house of nature; The third dream is that he opened up the road to real knowledge. These three strange dreams strengthened his confidence in establishing a new theory. This day is a turning point of Descartes' thought, and some scholars have designated this day as the birth date of analytic geometry.

However, the long-term military life made Descartes feel tired. He returned to China in 162 1, when civil strife was taking place in France, so he traveled to Holland, Switzerland, Italy and other places. /kloc-returned to Paris in 0/625 and moved to the Netherlands in 0/628.

During more than 20 years in the Netherlands, Descartes has conducted in-depth research in the fields of philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry and physiology, and maintained close contact with major European scholars through mathematician Father Mei Sen. Almost all his major works were completed in the Netherlands.

1628, Descartes wrote The Principles of Guiding Philosophy, 1634, and he completed On the World based on Copernicus. This book summarizes his views on philosophy, mathematics and many natural science problems. 1637, Descartes wrote three papers on refractive optics, meteorology and geometry in French, and wrote the preface "Methodology of Correctly Applying Reason and Pursuing Truth in Science", which is called methodology for short in the history of philosophy and published anonymously in Leiden on June 8. 164 1 published Metaphysical Meditation, and 1644 published Philosophical Principles and other important works.

Second, Descartes' achievements.

Descartes' contribution to science is various. However, his philosophy and methodology play a more important role in his life activities. His philosophical thoughts had a great influence on the later development of philosophy and science.

◆ Philosophical aspects:

Descartes emphasized that the purpose of science is to benefit mankind and make man the master and ruler of nature. He opposed scholasticism and theology and put forward a "systematic questioning method" that doubted everything. However, he also put forward the principle of "I think, therefore I am", emphasizing that the existence of independent spiritual entities with thinking as the attribute is unquestionable, and demonstrating the existence of independent material entities with extensiveness as the attribute. He thinks that the above two entities are finite entities, and their juxtaposition shows that he is a typical metaphysical or ontological dualist. Descartes also tried to prove the existence of infinite entity, namely God. He believes that God is the creator and ultimate cause of finite entities. Descartes' epistemology is basically idealistic. He advocated rationalism, applied the reasoning method and deductive method of geometry to philosophy, thought that a clear concept was truth, and put forward a "natural concept".

Descartes' natural philosophy is completely opposite to Aristotle's theory. He believes that all material things are machines governed by the same mechanical law, even the human body. At the same time, he also believes that there is a spiritual world outside the mechanical world. This dualistic view later became the fundamental thinking method of Europeans.

The most famous thought is "I think, therefore I am". When I doubt the existence of everything, I don't have to doubt my own thoughts, because the only thing I can be sure of at this time is the existence of my own thoughts. This famous saying, regarded by Descartes as the starting point of his own philosophical system, was regarded as the general representative of extreme subjective idealism in eastern European academic circles in China in the past and now, and was severely criticized. Many people even regard Descartes as "putting the cart before the horse" and "ridiculous" on the grounds that "existence must precede consciousness" and "there can be no thought without body". Descartes' doubts are not doubts about some specific things and principles, but absolute doubts about mankind, the world and God. From this absolute doubt, Descartes should lead to unquestionable philosophical principles.

Descartes can be said to be one of the most influential masters of European philosophy and science in the17th century and beyond, and is known as "the ancestor of modern science".