Describe the main topographical features and judgment basis of the Kingdom of Bhutan.

The terrain of Bhutan is high in the north and low in the south. Except the Duval Plain in the south, mountainous areas account for more than 95% of the country's total area, and are known as mountain countries. The altitude in Bhutan is very different. The Manas River in the southeast is only 97 meters above sea level, which is the lowest in the country. Most of the peaks in the northern Himalayas are above 6000~7000 meters above sea level, and Kulakangri is 7554 meters above sea level, which is the highest mountain in China.

Bhutan's topography is very different, from north to south, gradually decreasing. With the vertical change of weather and the influence of Indian Ocean monsoon weather, the whole country can be roughly divided into three main terrain areas, namely, the northern mountainous area, the central valley area and the southern hilly plain area.

(A) the northern mountainous areas

The northern mountainous area, also known as the Great Himalayas, is located in the northernmost part of Bhutan and extends along the border of China. The height is generally above 5000 meters above sea level, and the annual rainfall is less than 500 mm The mountains in this area are steep, with many ice peaks and dangerous terrain. Most of the majestic peaks are as high as 5000 meters, which are above the snow line all the year round. The peaks covered by ice cages all the year round include Masangan Peak, Zhuo Molari Peak, Wajira Peak, Melakal Spring Peak, Baldrat Peak and Melara Peak. The famous Zhuomora Peak and other four peaks over 7,000 meters are located here, which are natural barriers between China and Bhutan. The weather in this area is cold, the air is weak, the oxygen content is low, and glaciers are developed. In this area, except for alpine meadows for grazing, most areas are desert and almost uninhabited.

(2) Central valley area

The central valley area, also known as the inner Himalayas, consists of branches extending southward from the Himalayas and valleys between them, with an area of about 1/2 of the total area of Bhutan and an altitude of 2,000-5,000m. The terrain in this area fluctuates greatly, and the uniform height difference is about1500 ~ 2000 m. Mountains and valleys crisscross, and the traffic between east and west is inconvenient. Located in the middle of Bhutan, the Black Mountain Range is more than 4,900 meters above sea level, which geographically divides Bhutan into two parts, the east and the west, and is a natural barrier between Dandong and the west.

The central valley area has mild weather and moderate precipitation. The annual average temperature is about 8℃, and the annual precipitation is 500 ~1000 mm. The mountains are generally alpine temperate forests with mixed needles or broad leaves, and the vines under them are lush. There are many valleys in this area, such as Timbuktu Valley, Paro Valley, Punaka Valley, Bentang Valley and Tahigang Valley, which are all famous in Bhutan. These valleys, with open terrain, pleasant climate, fertile land, rich specialties and dense population, are important economic zones and cultural centers in Bhutan.

(3) Southern hilly and plain areas

The southern hilly plain consists of the foothills of the Himalayas and the Duval Plain below 2000 meters above sea level.

The foothills of the Himalayas, also known as the sub-Himalayas. The area rises vertically from Duval Plain to 600 meters, then the terrain gradually rises, and the fluctuation increases, and then rises to more than 1500 meters, with steep cliffs. The larger rivers in this area are Amo Chhu River and manas River. The annual rainfall is1200 ~ 2000mm. The valley is mainly a transportation hub and a gateway to the hinterland of Bhutan.

Duval Plain is the northern extension of Assam Plain in India. The width from north to south is about 30~50 kilometers, and the lowest point is only 150 meters above sea level. Flat and open terrain. Duval plain can be roughly divided into two parts: north and south. The north is close to the hills, and the terrain is influenced by the northern mountain mouth. There are coarse gravel, boulder, pebble, coarse round gravel, sand and other sediments on the ground. The river bed is wide and the river bank is short, which is easy to cut off in dry season. The topography of the southern region is similar to that of the Assam-Bengal Plain in the south, with slow river flow, fixed rivers and fertile soil. Plants in the double forests of grass, bamboo and Miluo grow luxuriantly, and there are some farmland.

The hilly plain in southern China has a humid and rainy climate, with an average annual temperature of about 65,438 04℃ and an annual precipitation of 2,000-5,000mm. The rainy season is from June to September every year, with concentrated precipitation, which often causes floods. The river flow in this area is large and the riverbed is flat, but the river course is shallow and navigable. The weather in this area is suitable for the growth of animals and plants. The foothills are lush with vegetation, tropical and rainforest, and there are many wild animals in the forest. Manas river basin in the east. This is a famous animal sanctuary in Bhutan. The cash crops in this area are mainly grain production, which is rich in tropical fruits such as oranges, bananas and pineapples.

Second, glaciers

Glaciers in Bhutan mainly exist in the mountainous areas in northern Bhutan, covering 65,438+00% of the total territory of Bhutan.

Glaciers in Bhutan are important renewable water resources of rivers in Bhutan. Every winter, glaciers condense a lot of new snow, which melts slowly in summer and brings a lot of fresh water to Bhutan every year. At the same time, glaciers have also brought serious disasters to Bhutan. Melting glaciers will make rivers flood seasonally, often causing floods and potential disasters.

Three. Major rivers and valleys

Bhutan is mountainous, with dense rivers, abundant precipitation and abundant river water supply. Bhutan has four major water systems: Amo River, Wanghe River, Punachang River and Manas River. Most of these rivers originate from the Himalayan main vein, flow from north to south along the valley, flow through Bhutan and Assam Plain in India, and then flow into Brahmaputra River, which is a constant flow river. With the change of topography, the upper, middle and lower reaches have their own characteristics. Generally speaking, the upper reaches of the river are located in the alpine zone, and the river mainly comes from the melting of ice and snow and a small amount of precipitation in summer, so the riverbed is narrow, with a large drop, rapid water flow, low water temperature and no navigation. The riverbed in the middle reaches widens and the flow rate of the river slows down, but the river is shallow and still does not have the premise of navigation. The downstream is located in the southern hilly plain, where tributaries converge, the river flow increases, the riverbed is wide, the flow rate is slow, and some sections are navigable. But because of the low terrain, every rainy season, floods are serious.

(1) major rivers

Manas River, also known as Drangme Chhu, is located in the east of Bhutan, with a territorial area of150km and a drainage area of18375km2. It originated in Mount Tara in China, entered Bhutan from Kamen, joined its tributaries Mondchu and Tangbenchu in southern Bhutan, and then flowed into the Indian Yarlung Zangbo River. Manas River has a wide surface, rapid current and large drop, with a maximum width of 48m (Zhaxi Port reach). The river is a high mountain stream, with great differences in elevation between the upper, middle and lower reaches. The river has two main tributaries, namely Tangben River (long 149 km) and Mande River (long 15 1 km). Manas River and its tributaries discharge all the water in eastern Bhutan and are the largest rivers in Bhutan.

Puna Tsang Chhu, also known as Sankosh Chhu, is located in the west of Bhutan, with a territory of 220 kilometers and a drainage area of 65,438+00,725 square kilometers. Originating in the snow-capped mountains and Luna area above Jiasha Castle, it flows to the southeast. After four twists and turns in Punaka, it flows south into Jamonachu. Several tributaries in the upper reaches, such as Mochhu, Pachhu and Punakha chhu, meet near Punaka. In the south of Punaka, the riverbed widens, reaching about 300 meters at its widest point. However, to the south of Wangdipozhang, the river suddenly narrows due to the influence of steep canyons. Punachang River and its tributaries discharge all the water in the Great Himalayas between Zhuomora Mountain and Kulakangri Mountain, making it the second largest river in Bhutan.

Wang Chhu, also called Raigye Chhu, is located in the west of Bhutan, with a total length of 368 kilometers and a drainage area of 3,600 square kilometers. It originated in Zhuomora Mountains and Lingxi area, and consists of several tributaries, such as Ha Chhu River and Paro River. These tributaries are also the main channels leading to Yadong area of China. The Paro River, with a total length of 75 kilometers, originates from the snow-capped mountains south of Zhuomora Peak and flows through Dujizong and the open Paro Valley. Ha River flows into Wang River in the west of Jiapu City. The riverbed of Wanghe River is narrow, with great disparity in height and rapid current. The riverbed of this river is 2 100 meters above sea level in Chazong reach of Tashi, while it is only 90 meters above sea level near the exit of Duval Plain. The water volume of Leji River is about 1/2 of that of Punachang River, and it is the third largest river in Bhutan.

Amochhu, also known as Torsar Chhu, is located in the west of Bhutan, with a drainage area of 65,438+0,400 square kilometers. It originated in Gyangze, China, and flowed into India from the southeast to the southeast of Chunpi Valley via Bhutan. This river is fast-flowing and rich in water. Even in winter, the water depth is at least 1 m, and it is choppy. After entering Duval Plain, the river channel widens and forms braided river. No, the Indian Highway and the southern border town of Puntsolin in Bhutan are located on the left bank of the Amo River. Amo River is 70 kilometers long in Bhutan, and its water volume is about 1/3 of the total water volume of Punachang River, making it the fourth largest river in Bhutan.

(ii) Major river valleys

Bhutan has many mountains and rivers, so there are many valleys. Moreover, a river valley is an economic zone in Bhutan, which plays an important role in Bhutan's economic development. Bhutan has many major river valleys.

Aha Valley-located in the west of Bhutan, with an average elevation of about 3,000 meters and an area of about 40 square kilometers. The valley is long and narrow, from northwest to southeast, and the Ha River runs through it. The land on both sides is fertile, and the temperate coniferous forest on the valley wall is rich. Hazong lies in the middle of the valley. Before 1957, Hazong was a commercial center between Bhutan and China. Now, Hazong is one of the military centers in Bhutan, where the Second Squadron of Royal Bhutan Army, Luozong Military Academy in wangchuck and Indian Army Military Staff Headquarters in Bhutan are stationed. Dantang (also called Dantang) is located in Guyuan, which is the transportation hub of Bhutan to Yadong, an important town in western China.

Hazong Valley is rich in rice, barley, cotton, beans and a variety of fruits and vegetables, and is one of the main grain-producing areas in Bhutan.

Paro Valley-located in the west of Bhutan and the east of Hazong Valley, with an average elevation of 2,300 meters and a valley area of about 55 square kilometers. The valley is divided into two tributaries in the north of Palosson, and extends southward to Wanghe River. This valley is rich in soil and products. The Bhutanese government has built farms, agricultural farms and farms here. A temperate coniferous forest surrounded by valleys. The main mineral resources are graphite and limestone, of which graphite reserves150,000 tons. The traffic in the valley is relatively developed. Palo City is located in the middle of the valley, connected with Yanbu, Dujizong, Cheka and Hazong by highway. The Royal Government of Bhutan has built a national museum, a normal college and the only international airport in China in Parozong. Paro Valley is the power center of Bhutan in history, which not only has a great influence on Bhutan's history, but also occupies an important position in Bhutan's cultural history. Jigme singye wangchuck, the current king, was the governor of Paro before he ascended the throne.

Paro Valley is one of the most beautiful valleys in Bhutan, and it is also a religious and tourist attraction in Bhutan. The famous Palo religion, Duji religion and Ren Peng religion (here refers to the castle) are all located in the valley. Before the capital Thimphu, Bhutan's National Assembly often held meetings in Renpengzong. Dujizong was built in 1639 with a history of more than 300 years. It was designed and built by King Awang Nangal. Located in this valley, the Kichu Temple was built by King Songtsan Gampo of the Tang Dynasty in China. It is one of the ancient and famous temples in Bhutan and has always been a holy place for Bhutanese pilgrims.

Paro Valley is rich in rice, corn, wheat, cotton, citrus, apples and other crops, and is one of the main grain-producing areas in Bhutan.

Thimphu Valley-located in the east of Palo, with an average elevation of 2,300 meters and a valley area of about 45 square kilometers. The valley is long and narrow, showing a north-south trend. The Thimphu River runs through it, and the two sides are rich in products. The valley is covered by temperate coniferous forests. The famous city of Thimphu is located on the alluvial platform beside the Thimphu River in the center of the valley. Thimphu was once the summer palace of the King of Bhutan, and 1955 was the capital. Now it has become the economic and cultural center of Bhutan, where all state administrative agencies are located. Thimphu is large in scale and elegant in structure, including the famous Tengcuo Palace and the Royal Villa Plaza. Taba, 2 kilometers north of Thimphu, has the earliest radio station in Bhutan; Sintoka, 5 kilometers north of Thimphu, is the religious center of Bhutan. Green West Sect is located on the northwest edge of the valley, from which you can see the magnificent scenery of the peaks covered with snow all year round.

Punaka Valley-located in the east of Thimphu, with an average elevation of about 2000 meters and a valley area of about 100 square kilometers. The valley is flat and open with a mild climate. The lower part of the valley is covered by pine forest, and the higher part (above 3000 meters above sea level) is temperate evergreen oak forest. Punakazon, the famous ancient capital of Bhutan, is located in the center of the valley, with two tributaries extending to the north, namely Gupu River and Mohe River, and connecting with Wangdibozhang Valley to the south. This valley has beautiful scenery and pleasant climate.

To the northwest of Punaka Sect is Jiasha Sect, with excellent pastures and famous hot springs nearby. Jia Shazong is famous for butter, meat and cheese products.

Punaka Valley is rich in rice, wheat, corn, beans, cotton and various fruits and vegetables.

Shaer Valley, also known as Wang Di Fran Valley, is located in the south of Punaca, with an average elevation of about 2000 meters and an area of about 150 square kilometers. It is the largest valley in Bhutan. The valley is wide and flat, the weather is dry, the vegetation on the valley wall is sparse, and there are many exposed rocks and grasslands. Slate reserves are about160,000 cubic meters, and residents are mostly engaged in animal husbandry and stone carving. Wang Duipo, Zhang Zong and Dagana are all located in this valley. The valley is famous all over the country for its vast and excellent pastures, and it is a developed area of aquaculture in Bhutan. The Royal Government has built dairy farms, cheese factories and farms in this valley, which have provided a large number of dairy products to other parts of Bhutan and played an important role in improving the lives of Bhutanese people.

Munde Valley, also known as Tronsa Valley, is located in the east of Sa Valley, with an average elevation of about 2,300 meters and an area of about 30 square kilometers. This is one of the smaller valleys in Bhutan. The valley is long and narrow, showing a north-south trend, with a wide and flat mouth and hot and dry weather. Most of the valley walls are exposed to rocks and grasslands, and the rest are covered by temperate coniferous forests. The famous Tongsazong is located on the ridge in the north of the valley and is an important city in Bhutan. The leader of Tongsazong once ruled the whole eastern Bhutan for centuries. Uyan wangchuck, the first king of modern Bhutan,/kloc-0 was the leader of Tongsazong before he ascended the throne in 907. Tunza Castle is the largest and most spectacular castle in Bhutan. In addition, Tongsazong is a famous Buddhist shrine in Bhutan, with more than 200 Lama temples and many pilgrims.

Huotang Valley is located in the northeast of Tongsazong, with an average elevation of about 2,750 meters and an area of about 50 square kilometers. The valley is wide and flat, with northeast-southwest trend, fertile land, rich products, dry weather, many meadows in arid areas, sparse larch and shrub. This Tang school is located in this vast and brilliant valley. There are large farms here, covering an area of more than 5,000 mu, which are important granaries in Bhutan. The premise of grazing in this valley is good. 1976, the Bhutanese government built a sheep and yak farm here, which is one of the important pastoral areas in Bhutan.

Bumtang area is still a religious shrine in Bhutan. It is said that the famous Jampa Temple was built in this valley in the 5th century A.D./KLOC-0, and the Indian sage Lotus Peanut completed his "fantastic feat" in this temple. Therefore, this valley occupies a very special position in the hearts of Bhutanese people and a very important position in the religious history of Bhutan.

Kurtha Valley-located in the east of Bontemps Valley and the northwest of Zhaxigang Valley, Zi Long is located in this valley. The valley is famous for its intricate and exquisite textiles, especially matra wool. In addition, there are two hot springs and many temples in this valley.

Songar Valley-Located in the south of Kurtha Valley and the west of Zhaxigang Valley. The valley is one of the important pastoral areas in Bhutan because of its fertile land and abundant aquatic plants. The Mongols are located in this valley.

Tashigang Valley-located in the east of Bhutan, with an average elevation of 850m and an area of about 10 km2, is one of the lowest valleys in Bhutan. The valley is northeast-southwest, and Manas River passes through it. The tropical plants on both sides of the valley are rich in fruits and silk. It is the main planting area of tropical crops and fruits in Bhutan, and the handicraft textile industry is also very developed. Before 1959, the valley had extensive business contacts with China, and bartered rice, corn, dried peppers, silk and paint for local salt, wool and tea. Located in this valley, Zhaxi Port School and Yangzi School, two important towns in the east, are the main roads leading to China. There is a medium-sized airport in Yangpula, southwest of Zhaxigang City.

Kheng Valley- located in the south of Bumtang Valley and the west of Songar Valley. This valley is famous for its handicrafts, especially exquisite bamboo handicrafts and metal products. Rengong School is located in this valley.

Chirang Valley-located in the south of Bhutan, with fertile land and pleasant climate, is rich in citrus, and the handmade paper industry is also relatively developed, especially the handmade cotton paper made of hawthorn pulp. This area is densely populated, and most people belong to Nepal. Chilangzong is located in this valley.

Samt Se Valley is located in the southwest of Bhutan, which is one of the industrial areas in Bhutan. In recent years, small industries in this valley have developed rapidly and many small factories have been built. Sanchi Temple, the famous Pengcuolin and Chuk Sakrike Hydropower Station are all located in this valley. Pengcuolin is the southern gate of Bhutan, the main traffic route from Bhutan to India, and an important industrial town in Bhutan. The Chuk Sareko Power Station was built in 1975, equipped with four 84,000-watt generators, with a total power generation of 336,000 watts and a total investment of 2.88 billion rupees. It is the largest hydropower station in Bhutan, and 90% of its electricity is exported to India, which is an important source of foreign exchange for the Bhutanese government.

Four. The main mountains and peaks of Bhutan

(1) Main mountain ranges

Bhutan is a mountainous country with many magnificent mountains. Besides the main vein of the Himalayas, there are many branches. Most of these branches are north-south and the terrain is high in the north and low in the south. The northern end of most mountains is above 5000~7000 meters above sea level, which is above the snow line all the year round. Its main mountain ranges are:

The Himalayas, the main vein of the Himalayas, is the largest mountain system in the world, distributed in Bhutan, Nepal, China, Pakistan, India and other countries, with a length of about 2,450 kilometers from east to west. In Bhutan, it is mainly located in the north of Bhutan, with an east-west trend, about 400 kilometers long and an altitude of 4800~7300 meters. This ridge is the dividing line between Bhutan and China. There are more than 20 peaks over 6000 meters along the ridge. The mountain peaks are covered with snow all year round, which is a natural barrier between China and Bhutan, and only a few mountain passes can pass. Because of the long winter and no summer in this area, the snow is deep and the traffic is poor, and the traffic is often interrupted. There are several valleys on the south side of the main vein for grazing, and the others are stony deserts and glaciers.

Dunga Mountain Range-This mountain range, the southern branch of Himalayan Mountains, is located in the east of Bhutan, with a north-south trend. It is about110km long and 35km wide, with an altitude of 300-4,500m. It is the watershed between Gulu River and Gulong River. The mountain range is high in the north and low in the south, with a flat top, a peak of about 3500 meters and a deep valley.

Rudong Mountain Range —— This mountain range is the southern branch of Himalayan Mountains, located in the east of Bhutan, with a north-south trend, about100km long, 30km wide and 600-4500m above sea level. It is the watershed between Puqu River and Gulu River in Mujiang River. The mountains are high in the north and low in the south, with gentle ridges.

Yuduo Mountain Range-This mountain range is the southern branch of the Himalayas, located in the middle of Bhutan, with a north-south trend. It is about 90 kilometers long and 30 kilometers wide, with an altitude of 1200 ~ 4500 meters. It is the watershed between Manas River and Mujiang Puqu River. The southern end of the mountain range ends at the intersection of two rivers, with high terrain in the north and south and low in the middle.

Black mountain range-This mountain range is the southern branch of the Himalayas, located in the middle of Bhutan, with a north-south trend. It is about 120km long, 65km wide and 1500-4500m above sea level. It is the largest mountain range in Bhutan's Himalayas and the watershed of Punachang River and Manas River. This mountain range is high from north to south and low in the middle. Heishan Peak is 49 16 meters above sea level, which is the highest peak in the inner Himalayas.

Duojiong Mountain Range-This mountain range is a branch of the South Himalayan Mountains, located in the west of Bhutan, with a north-south trend. It is about 80 kilometers long, 35 kilometers wide and 600-4500 meters above sea level. It is the watershed between Raigye Chhu and Punachang River, with high terrain in the north and low terrain in the south. The eastern slope is gentle and wider than the western slope. The capital Thimphu and important cities such as Punaka and Wangdibozhang are located on the east and west sides of the mountain range.

Kongsangjiongdong Mountain Range-This mountain range is a branch of the South Himalayan Mountains, located in the west of Bhutan, with a north-south trend. It is about 90 kilometers long and 60 kilometers wide, with an altitude of 1000 ~ 4500 meters. It is the watershed between the Amo River and the Legge River. The terrain of this mountain range inclines from northwest to southeast, with steep mountains, severe river cutting and wide and gentle valleys. The famous Thimphu, Paro and Hazong valleys are located in the middle of this mountain range.

Other mountains-Bhutan has some famous mountains with low altitude, such as Selila (3,658m), Beggar (4,087m), Zelila (3,552m), Dor La Chu (3174m), Zuodong Stone (4918m) and Perilla (3,377). These mountains are all named after famous mountain passes or peaks. Dongqia Mountain, located on the border between Bhutan and Sikkim, extends out of a mountain pass that is not too short in Bhutan. Its trend is irregular and changeable, but it is generally southward, forming a watershed between Tista River in the west and Torsa River in the east. Its height gradually decreases from north to south, and it is integrated with Duval Plain in the southwest of Bhutan.

(2) Main peak

Bhutan has many mountain peaks with high altitude. Among them, the peaks above 6000 meters above sea level are mostly located in the Himalayas on the border between China and Africa, and are covered with snow and ice all the year round. In addition, there are other famous peaks, some located in the border areas of China and Africa, and some in the hinterland of Bhutan, with an altitude of 2,000 to 6,000 meters.