Knowledge points in the first volume of geography for the first year of junior high school (Hunan Education Press)

(1) Shape and size of the Earth

1. The Earth is an irregular sphere that is slightly flattened at the poles. (The equatorial circumference is about 40,000 kilometers, the equatorial radius is 6,378 kilometers, the polar radius is 6,357 kilometers, and the average radius is 6,371 kilometers. The surface area is 510 million square kilometers.)

2. How humans understand the shape of the earth Process: ancient times (intuition) - "the sky is round and the earth is square"; modern times (observation, Magellan's successful voyage around the world) - "spherical"; now (measurement and calculation) - irregular ellipsoid.

3. From "Stand high and see far"; "Lunar eclipse"; "Standing on the seaside and looking at ships coming from afar, you see the mast first and then the hull"; "Satellite photos of the Earth" It can be proved that the earth is a sphere.

(2) Model of the Earth - Globe

1. Concept of Globe

2. Earth's Axis - Imaginary Axis

3 , the earth's axis passes through the intersection between the center of the earth and the earth's surface. The one pointing to the North Star is the North Pole (N), and the opposite is the South Pole (S).

(3) Longitude and latitude lines and latitude and longitude

1. Latitude lines and latitude

(1) The definition of latitude lines is on the globe, along the east-west direction, surrounding the globe A circle of one week.

(2) Characteristics of latitude lines

A. Shape All weft lines are circles and can be called weft loops;

B. The length varies, with the longest at the equator, gradually shortening towards the poles, and finally reaching a point.

C. Direction indicates east-west direction.

(There are countless)

(3) Division of latitude North of the equator (0° latitude) is northern latitude, which is customarily represented by "N"; South of the equator is southern latitude , customarily represented by "S". The north and south latitudes are divided into 90° each; the north and south poles are 90°S and 90°N respectively.

(4) Division of low, middle and high latitudes

Low latitude: 0°~30°

Middle latitude: 30°~60°

High latitude: 60°~90°

(5) Division of Northern and Southern Hemispheres North of the equator is the northern hemisphere, south of the equator is the southern hemisphere; all northern latitudes are located in the northern hemisphere, and all southern latitudes are located in the southern hemisphere .

2. Longitude and longitude

(1) Definition of longitude On the globe, the line that connects the north and south poles and intersects perpendicularly with the latitude is called a longitude, also called a meridian.

(2) Characteristics of meridian

A. Shape: All meridians are semicircular;

B. Length All warp lengths are equal;

C. Directions All meridians point to north and south.

(There are countless)

(3) Longitude is divided into 180° from the prime meridian (0° longitude) to the east and west, and 180° to the east. ° is the east longitude, and it is customary to use "E" as the code. 180° to the west is the west longitude, and it is customary to use "W" as the code.

(4) Meridian coil All meridian lines are semicircular, so two opposite meridian lines on the globe form a meridian loop. The sum of the longitude coils is equal to 180°, and one of the two longitudes is the east longitude and the other is the west longitude.

(5) Division of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres Internationally, it is customary to use the longitude lines of 20°W and 160°E as the boundaries to divide the Eastern and Western hemispheres. East of 20°W to 160°E is the Eastern Hemisphere. West of 20°W to 160°E is the Western Hemisphere. (Remember: 0°--20°W is the western longitude, but it is in the Eastern Hemisphere; 160°E-180° is the east longitude, but it is in the Western Hemisphere.)

(4) Movement of the Earth

1. The rotation of the earth: The earth keeps rotating around its axis. This is called the rotation of the earth

(1) Direction: from west to east

(2) Period: approximately 24 hours

(3) Phenomenon: The phenomenon of day and night alternation occurs.

2. Earth’s revolution:

(1) Direction: from west to east

(2) Period: one year.

(3) Phenomenon produced: Seasonal changes in the four seasons

(4) Important features of revolution: The orbital plane of revolution always maintains an angle of 66.5° with the earth’s axis, and The North Pole always points near Polaris.

(5) The length of day and night:

The sun shines directly on the equator (vernal and autumnal equinoxes), and day and night are equally divided in all parts of the world.

The sunlight shines directly on the Northern Hemisphere, and the days are longer and the nights are shorter in various parts of the Northern Hemisphere. The farther north you go, the longer the days are. When the sun shines directly on the Tropic of Cancer (summer solstice), the days are longest in various parts of the Northern Hemisphere.

The sun shines directly on the Southern Hemisphere, and the days are shorter and the nights are longer in the Northern Hemisphere. The days get shorter as you go north. When the sun shines directly on the Tropic of Cancer (winter solstice), the daytime is the shortest in the Northern Hemisphere.

(5) The formation and distribution of temperature zones

1. The division of the five zones: Basis - the amount of solar heat received by the earth's surface.

2. Range: 0°~23.5°S (23.5°N) is the tropical zone; 23.5°N~66.5°N is the north temperate zone; 23.5°S~66.5°S is the south temperate zone; 66.5°N ~90°N is the northern frigid zone; 66.5°S~90°S is the southern frigid zone.

3. Characteristics: Tropical zone - there is direct sunlight, there is no polar night and no polar day, and the sun gets the most heat;

The cold zone - there is oblique sunlight, there is no polar night and no polar day, The least amount of solar heat is obtained; temperate zone - oblique sunlight, endless night and day, and obvious changes in the four seasons.

5． Map

①The three elements of a map: scale, direction, and legend.

②Types of scales: line segment scales, digital scales

③Judgment of scale size: the smaller the denominator, the larger the fraction, which is a large scale; the larger the denominator, the smaller the fraction. , is a small scale.

④A large scale indicates a small range and detailed content (such as the map of Dongtai City)

A small scale indicates a large range and the content is omitted (such as the map of Jiangsu Province)

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⑤The vertical distance of a location on the ground above sea level is called altitude. A line connecting points with equal altitudes is a contour line. Contour lines can be used to represent the rise and fall of the ground.

2. Land and Ocean

1. The distribution of land and sea in the world is very uneven. The land is mainly concentrated in the northern hemisphere, but there is an ocean (Arctic Ocean) around the North Pole; the ocean is mainly concentrated in the northern and southern hemispheres, but there is a piece of land (Antarctica) surrounding the Antarctic.

2. 71% of the earth's surface is ocean and 29% is land.

3. A peninsula is a protruding part of land that extends into the ocean; a strait is a narrow waterway that connects two oceans.

4. Seven continents: Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, Oceania

Four oceans: Pacific, Atlantic, Indian Ocean, Arctic Ocean

5. Causes of changes in the sea and land: Changes in the earth's crust and rise and fall of sea levels are the main causes of changes in the sea and land. Human activities can also cause changes in the sea and land.

6. German scientist Wegener proposed the hypothesis of continental drift.

7. In the 1960s, earth science research showed that continental drift was caused by plate movement.

8. For a diagram of the six major sections, see page 37 of the textbook.

9. Generally speaking, the crust inside the plate is relatively stable; the crust is relatively active in the area where the plates meet, which is where volcanoes and earthquakes are concentrated in the world.

3. Weather and climate (P42)

1. Weather has two important characteristics: weather reflects the atmospheric conditions of a place in a short period of time; at the same time, the weather in different places may be very different.

2. For wind direction and force, see Figure 3.4 on page 45 of the textbook.

3. Temperature and air temperature distribution

①The highest temperature of the day occurs around 2 o'clock in the afternoon, and the lowest temperature occurs around sunrise.

② During the year, the temperature in the Northern Hemisphere is the highest on the continent in July and the lowest in January. Throughout the year, the temperature in the Southern Hemisphere is the lowest on the continent in July and the highest in January.

③From the equator to the poles, the temperature gradually decreases.

④According to observations, for every 100 meters of increase in altitude, the temperature drops by approximately 0.6°C.

⑤Use an isotherm diagram to represent the horizontal distribution of temperature.

4. Precipitation and distribution of precipitation

① Rain, snow, hail, etc. falling from the atmosphere are collectively called precipitation. Rainfall is the main form of precipitation. Fog and dew are not precipitation.

② From the equator to the poles, the general trend is that annual precipitation gradually decreases.

③ Near the Tropic of Cancer, there is more precipitation on the east coast of the mainland and less precipitation on the west coast of the mainland.

④In temperate zones, there is less precipitation in the interior of the continent and more precipitation in coastal areas.

⑤Use a constant precipitation line chart to represent the distribution of precipitation.

⑥The world's "rainiest pole" - Cherrapunji; the world's "dryest pole" - Atacama Desert.

⑦Normally, the windward slopes of mountains receive more precipitation, while the leeward slopes receive less precipitation.

4. The climate of the world

①Climate is the average weather conditions in a place for many years, and generally does not change much.

②For the world climate distribution map, see page 58 of the textbook.

③ Near the equator (tropical rainforest climate); the polar regions (boreal climate); the east coast of the continent near the Tropic of Cancer (subtropical monsoon and monsoon humid climate); the west coast of the continent near the Tropic of Cancer (tropical desert climate); Mid-latitude inland areas (temperate continental climate).

④ Tropical rainforest climate characteristics: high temperature and rain all year round; Mediterranean climate characteristics: little rain during high temperature periods and rainy periods at low temperatures.

⑤Main factors affecting climate: latitude, sea and land location, topography, and are also the main factors affecting temperature and precipitation.

⑥Contents related to this section in "Geographical Atlas".

4. Residents and settlements

1. Population and Race

①The rate of population growth is determined by the birth rate and death rate.

②Natural growth rate = birth rate – death rate.

③Population density indicates the degree of population density. Population density generally refers to the average number of people living per square kilometer.

The population of a certain area (people)

Population density (people/square kilometers) =

The area of ??the area (square kilometers)

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④Densely populated areas: plain areas near the sea at mid- to low-latitudes.

Sparsely populated areas: extremely arid desert areas, rainforest areas with an overly humid climate, high latitude areas with severe cold all year round, or high plateaus and mountainous areas.

⑤The main distribution areas of white people: northern Africa, Europe, Oceania, North America, the east coast of South America, and western Asia

The main distribution areas of yellow people: eastern Asia, North America North and northwest South America

The main distribution areas of black people are: southern Africa and northwest Oceania

⑥ Starting from the mid-16th century, European colonists began to plunder black Africans and sell them to America as slaves to make up for the lack of labor in the Americas.

2． Languages ??and Religions of the World

① Chinese is the most widely spoken language in the world, and English is the most widely spoken language in the world.

Main language distribution areas

Chinese China

English Western Europe, North America, southern Asia, etc.

Russian Russia

French France, central and southern Africa

Spanish Spain, many countries in Latin America

Arabic west Asia, northern Africa

②

③Christianity, Buddhism, and Islam are the three major religions in the world.

④Christianity is the religion with the largest number of believers in the world.

⑤Islamists are called Muslims. Islam is also called Islam or Islam in China.

⑥Christianity - church; Islam - mosque; Buddhism - temple.

3． Human settlements - settlements

①Settlements are not only people's residences, but also places where people carry out labor production and social activities.

② Generally speaking, there are rural settlements first and then urban settlements.

③Residents in rural settlements are mainly engaged in production activities such as farming, grazing, fishing, and logging. Residents of urban settlements are mainly engaged in industry and service industries.

④ At present, in some plain areas in the middle and lower reaches of rivers, settlements are relatively densely distributed; in high mountains and desert areas, there are few or no settlements.

⑤In tropical areas where it is hot and rainy all year round, double-story wooden or bamboo buildings (stilt houses or elevated houses) are common in rural settlements.

In tropical desert areas, local houses It has the characteristics of thick walls and small windows

5. Development and cooperation

1. There are currently more than 200 countries and regions in the world, distributed on all continents except Antarctica.

2． In terms of land area, Russia is the largest, and China ranks third in the world.

In terms of population, China has the largest population, and India ranks second in the world.

3． There are two main political systems in the world: capitalism and socialism.

4. Some colonies and territories that have not yet gained independence are called "regions." There are currently more than 30 regions in the world.

5. National boundaries are mainly divided based on mountains, rivers, lakes, oceans, and longitude and latitude lines.

6． The land, water and airspace within national boundaries are collectively referred to as territory.

7. At present, there are more than 20 developed countries in the world, mainly distributed in Europe, North America and Oceania. Japan in Asia is also a developed country

8. Currently, there are more than 150 developing countries in the world, most of which are newly independent countries after World War II, mainly located in Asia, Africa and Latin America.

9. Internationally, it is customary to refer to political and economic discussions between developing and developed countries as "North-South dialogue"; to refer to mutual assistance and cooperation among developing countries as "South-South cooperation."

"South" - developing countries are mainly distributed in the southern hemisphere and the southern part of the northern hemisphere.

"North" - developed countries are mainly distributed in the northern hemisphere, with a few in the southern hemisphere.

10. Currently, the largest international organization in the world is the United Nations, which was formally established in 1945 and is headquartered in New York, USA. Its basic purpose is to "promote national development and maintain world peace."

Chapter 6 Asia

1. The geographical location of Asia: It is located in the eastern and northern hemispheres, bounded by the Bering Strait and South America in the northeast, and the Ural Mountains and the Ural River in the northwest. , the Caspian Sea, the Greater Caucasus Mountains, the Black Sea and the Turkish Strait are bounded by Europe, the southwest is bounded by the Suez Canal and Africa, and the south faces Oceania across the sea.

2. Asia is the largest continent in the world: it has the largest area, the widest latitude, and the longest east-west distance.

3. People divide Asia according to geographical location: East Asia, South Asia, West Asia, North Asia, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia; China is located in East Asia. The countries in East Asia include: China, Japan, North Korea, South Korea, and Mongolia. .

4. Layered color topographic map: (the middle part (dark brown - pink) has a higher altitude, and the surrounding color gradually changes from light yellow to light green - the altitude gradually becomes lower) - Characteristics of the Asian terrain: high in the middle and low on all sides.

5. Be able to find the following place names on the map and describe the manifestations of these geographical things: Himalayas, Mount Everest (small black triangle), Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (dark brown area), West Siberian Plain ( Green area), Caspian Sea, Lake Beyur, Dead Sea (enclosed light blue), Arabian Peninsula, Malay Archipelago, North China Plain, Indus Plain, Deccan Plateau, Pamir Plateau, Iranian Plateau.

6. River distribution characteristics: originate from the middle and flow radially to all sides. The main rivers are: Yangtze River, Yellow River, Mekong River, Ganges River, Indus River, Ob River and Yenisey River.

7. Asian climate characteristics: climate types are complex and diverse, with monsoon climate and continental climate widely distributed. Methods for analyzing climate characteristics of other continents: distribution patterns of climate types and which climate type is the most widely distributed. The characteristics of monsoon climate: high temperature in summer, low temperature in winter, large seasonal changes in precipitation, concentrated in summer and autumn, with rain and heat in the same period.

8. Sort by population: Asia, Africa, Europe, South America, North America, Oceania; sort by natural population growth rate: Africa, South America, Asia, Oceania, North America, Europe.

10. A country’s industrial structure is an important indicator to measure a country’s economic development. The higher the per capita GDP of a country, the more developed the economy, the larger the tertiary industry, and the lower the per capita GDP. The more backward a country's economy is, the greater the proportion of its primary industry.

Asian economic differences: The eastern coastal area is economically developed, while the western inland economy is relatively backward. Economic development is different in different sea and land locations, and economic development is different under different social and historical conditions.

Chapter 7: Our neighboring countries and regions

1. Geographical location: sea and land location (Pacific Northwest), continent location (Eastern Asia), latitude location (longitude and latitude span is relatively large) (Wide) 23°N-46°N, 122°E-148°E. The north and south of Japan are long and narrow, and they intersect obliquely with the longitude, making Japan's geographical environment more complex and diverse. It spans the widest latitudes, and the temperature difference between the north and the south is large. , spans a wide range of longitudes, and the time difference between east and west is large.

2. Topographic characteristics: A typical island country, consisting of four major islands (Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu) and more than 3,900 small islands; the land area is 377,000 square kilometers; the coastline is winding , with many excellent ports (such as Kobe and Yokohama), the terrain is mainly mountainous, with small plains, many volcanoes and earthquakes (Japan is located at the junction of the Pacific Plate and the Eurasian Plate, with frequent crustal activity and instability)

3. Developed processing trade economy: Japan is a world economic power, a processing trade economy, and heavily dependent on foreign countries. It imports raw materials from abroad and exports finished products.

4. Japan’s main industrial areas: Keihin Industrial Area, Nagoya Industrial Area, Setouchi Industrial Area, Hanshin Industrial Area, Kitakyushu Industrial Area; distribution characteristics: Japanese industry is highly concentrated, mainly distributed in Seto. Indoor sea coast and Pacific coast area.

5. Compatible cultures between East and West: Traditional colors and modern flavors coexist, and Sino-Japanese cultural exchanges have a long history.

6. Japanese investment measures: Expand overseas investment and establish overseas production and sales bases, mainly to the United States, Western Europe and Southeast Asia; Benefits of overseas investment and factory building to Japan: Take advantage of the resources of developing countries Cheap labor; reduce the input cost of industrial production; join international economic and technological cooperation and competition in the international market; protect the country's natural resources, slow down resource consumption, protect the country's environment, and reduce transportation cost input. The impact of Japan’s investment and construction of factories overseas on other countries: Japan’s move of heavily polluting enterprises overseas will pollute the environment of other countries and lead to a decline in environmental quality; Japan starts from its own interests and has a strong awareness of protecting its own resources. However, large-scale imports of timber or excessive fishing in the oceans will cause serious damage to resources in other regions or countries around the world, leading to imbalances in the global ecological environment.

7. The scope of Southeast Asia: including Indochina and the Malay Archipelago; countries (***11 countries): Vietnam, Laos, Indonesia (the country of a thousand islands, the largest archipelago country in the world), Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines, Brunei, Timor-Leste. Geographical location: The latitude position (10°S-25°N) is mainly located in the tropics; sea and land location: it is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the west and the Pacific Ocean to the east. Most countries are coastal countries and island countries, and are greatly affected by the ocean; Transportation location: located in It is at the "crossroads" between the two continents (Asia and Oceania) and the two oceans (Pacific and Indian Oceans). The Strait of Malacca: Located between the Malay Peninsula and the Indonesian island of Sumatra, it is the shortest route from Europe to Southeast Asia and the ports in East Asia. It is an important sea channel bordering the Pacific and Indian Oceans.

The impact of climate characteristics on agriculture in climate type distribution areas

The tropical rainforest climate in the southern part of the Malay Peninsula and most of the Malay Archipelago has high temperatures and rainy weather throughout the year. Crops can be sown at any time and in all seasons. Harvest

The tropical monsoon climate of Indochina, the Malay Peninsula and the northern part of the Philippine Islands has high temperatures all year round. There are dry seasons and rainy seasons for sowing in the rainy season and harvesting in the dry season

2. Why is rice the most common food crop in Southeast Asia? Main: Rice is a staple food crop, but its production requires a large amount of labor and requires high temperature and rainy conditions. Southeast Asia is densely populated, with less farming and high temperatures and rainy conditions. Rice is the main food crop. An inevitable condition for adapting to the situation. Distribution of tropical cash crops in Southeast Asia: Thailand, Vietnam, and Myanmar are the world's important rice exporters; Thailand is the world's largest rubber producer; the Philippines is the world's largest abaca producer and coconut exporter; Malaysia is the world's largest abaca producer and coconut exporter; The largest palm oil producer; Indonesia is the world's largest coconut producer.

3. Most of the rivers in Southeast Asia originate from the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau region of my country, such as the Mekong River (Lancang River) and the Salween River (Nujiang River). The characteristics of the rivers are: north and south, with mountains and rivers alternating, and rivers flowing up continents. Passing through the mountainous area, high mountains stand on both sides of the river, and the water flows rapidly and contains rich water energy resources. The Xiazhou River Valley widens, the water flows slowly, and sediment is deposited. Alluvial plains are formed on both sides of the river bank. The estuary forms an estuary with crisscrossing river channels, low terrain and fertile soil. delta.

4. Why cities are distributed along rivers and estuary deltas: Because these places have fertile land, flat terrain, easy irrigation, and convenient transportation. They are important agricultural areas with dense populations and developed agriculture in Southeast Asia, and they are also important for cities. Favorable conditions are provided for development, such as Chongqing, Wujiang, and Shanghai in our country.

5. India’s geographical location: Located in the southwest of my country, it is one of the four ancient civilizations. India’s neighbors include Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Myanmar, as well as those across the sea. The terrain of Sri Lanka and India can be divided into three major terrain areas: the mountains on the southern side of the West Malaya in the north, the Ganges plain in the middle, and the Deccan Plateau in the south.

6. India’s total population has exceeded 1 billion, making it the second most populous country in the world. India’s population has increased nearly three times in 50 years. The main characteristics of India’s population problem are: excessive population growth. . Since the 1970s, the Indian government has adopted population control policies and incentive plans. However, the traditional concepts in India's vast rural areas are still very strong. For a long period of time, the annual net increase in India's population will become larger and larger. Due to India's overpopulation, there is a large gap between India and the world average in terms of per capita natural resource possession, per capita grain production and steel production. This shows that excessive population growth will have serious negative impacts on a country's resources, environment and economic development.

7. Most areas in India are in the tropics and subtropics, with a tropical monsoon climate. The main characteristics of the tropical monsoon climate are: high temperatures throughout the year, and two seasons of rain and drought. In the rainy season (June to September), the wind blows from the ocean to the land (southwest wind), and in the dry season (October to May of the following year) the wind blows from the mainland to the ocean (northeast wind). Monsoons cause frequent floods and droughts in India. If the monsoon comes early and retreats late, and the wind is strong, floods will occur. If the monsoon comes late and retreats early, and the wind is weak, drought will occur.

8. The breakthrough for India’s rapid food growth lies in the implementation of the “Green Revolution”. Rice and wheat are India's main food crops, and the output of both ranks among the top in the world. Rice is mainly distributed in the Ganges Plain and coastal plains with sufficient rainfall and flat terrain; while wheat is mainly distributed in the upper reaches of the Ganges River and the northwest of the Deccan Plateau, which have low rainfall and sufficient sunshine. This also shows that the relationship between agricultural production and natural conditions is extremely close.

9. India’s industry, during the British rule, mainly developed the textile industry and mining industry. This was because the British strictly controlled Indian industry due to the needs of their own economic development. India’s technological level was quite backward at that time and independent Since then, India has actively introduced foreign investment and advanced technology, attached great importance to cultivating scientific and technological talents, and strived to develop domestic industries, mainly including: steel industry, machinery industry, chemical industry and cotton and linen textile industry, but also in high-tech fields such as atomic energy, aerospace, and computer software. A certain achievement.

10. Russia’s natural overview: ① Terrain: relatively flat, mainly plains. To the west of the Ural Mountains are the plains, and to the east are the West Siberian Plain, Central Siberian Plain, and East Siberia. It is the largest country in the world, measuring 10,000 square kilometers from east to west, about 4,000 kilometers wide from north to south, and covering an area of ??more than 17 million square kilometers; ②Climate: Mainly temperate continental climate. There are great differences between regions. The north has a polar climate that is cold all year round, the south has a Mediterranean climate and a temperate steppe climate, and the east has a temperate monsoon climate. The climate of the Russian period: winters are long and cold, summers are short and warm; ③ Rivers and lakes: The Volga River is the longest river in Europe, rich in water power, and the most important inland waterway. The Ob River, Yenisey River, and Lega River are rich in water energy and have a long freezing period. Lake Baikal is the deepest lake in the world; ④ Rich in natural resources. There are many types and large reserves, and the regional distribution is uneven, with more in the east and less in the west. The main minerals include: oil, natural gas, coal, iron ore, non-ferrous metals, etc. The main producing areas are Kursk Iron Mine, Kuzbass Coal Mine, and Tyumen Oil Field.

11. Four major industrial zones: the Industrial Asia zone centered on Moscow is distributed in the European part of Russia. It is the most industrially developed region in Russia, mainly including steel, automobiles, aircraft, rockets and electronics. and other industrial sectors; the industrial zone centered in St. Petersburg is distributed along the Baltic Sea coast of the European part of Russia. The petrochemical, shipbuilding, electronics, papermaking and aerospace industries here are very developed. It is also the most developed region in Russia's food and textile industries; the Ural Industrial Zone is located in the Ural Mountains and is located on the dividing line between Asia and Europe. It mainly produces petroleum, steel, machinery and other products; the Siberian Industrial Zone centered on Kuzbass: it mainly produces coal, petroleum, natural gas, electricity, steel and other heavy industrial products and military industrial products.

12. Why was the Abelian Railway built along the southern mountains? The first reason is that the southern mountainous areas are rich in mineral resources. Secondly, due to the high latitude, the northern part of Russia is cold all year round, with low temperatures, and has deep The frozen soil layer, and building railways on the frozen soil layer is difficult and has a low safety factor. Pipeline transportation is a new transportation method that combines lines and transportation vehicles into one. It mainly transports oil and natural gas. There are two main modes of transportation: roads and railways; two main modes of freight transportation: pipelines and railways.

Chapter 8 Other Countries and Regions in the Eastern Hemisphere

1. The Middle East is a geographical region centered on Europe. When European countries expanded to the East in the 17th century, some Eastern countries were divided into the Near East, the Middle East and the Far East based on distance. The Middle East mainly includes the countries in West Asia (Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Turkey, Palestine, Israel, Egypt) except Afghanistan, as well as Egypt in North Africa. West Asia does not include the European part of Turkey. The Middle East includes the European part of Turkey, which means that the geographical location of the Middle East is relatively special, spanning Asia, Europe and Africa, and is known as the land of two oceans, three continents and five seas (Asia, Europe, Africa; the Atlantic and Indian Oceans; the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Caspian Sea, Red Sea, Arabian Sea), the special geographical location is also one of the reasons why this area has become a hot spot. The Turkish Strait and the Suez Canal are the dividing lines between Asia and Europe, and Asia and Africa respectively. The Middle East is like the transportation hub of the world. In ancient times, it was the only place that the "Silk Road" passed through. Now it is still the transportation hub between the East and the West, especially the opening of the Suez Canal and the use of the Turkish Strait, which further highlights its geographical location. The Middle East is also an "air corridor" for world transportation, and many international air routes pass through it. Therefore, the Middle East used to be a region where imperialism and colonialism invaded and expanded. Nowadays, some big countries want to put it in the place to compete for world hegemony. Under their own control, their struggle was very fierce, which caused instability in the situation in the Middle East.

2. Abundant oil resources: The Middle East is currently the region with the largest oil reserves, production and export of oil in the world (oil reserves account for 65.4%, production accounts for 30.5%, and exports account for 44.7%). It occupies an important position in the world and is known as the world's oil treasure house.

Middle East oil is mainly distributed along the Persian Gulf and is mainly shipped to the United States, Japan, and Western European countries