When did the smog in Britain happen due to the development of science and technology?

Britain is the earliest industrialized country in the world, and London is one of the earliest cities with smog problems in the world. In 1950s, the "London Haze Event" that shocked the world made the name of "Fog Capital" famous all over the world. Now London has basically got rid of the label of "foggy city", and many experiences are worth learning.

First, the development of fog and haze in London

/kloc-In the 9th century, London, as the birthplace and industrial center of the industrial revolution, entered a period of rapid industrial development. The consumption of a large number of fossil fuels, especially coal, continued to increase, which aggravated the air pollution in London, and factories produced a large amount of exhaust gas, forming a very thick grayish yellow smoke, which made the air pollution situation in London increasingly severe. From the beginning of 100 century to the middle of the 20th century, there were many cases of winter air pollution in London. The earliest record can even be traced back to 18 13, followed by 1873, 1880, 1882,/.

1952 from February 4 to 9, a large range of high-concentration smog enveloped London. According to historical records, in the four days from February 5 to February 8 of 1952, the death toll in London reached 4000, among which the death rate of people over 48 was three times as high as usual. /kloc-the death rate of people under 0/year old is twice as high as usual. In addition, the incidence of respiratory diseases such as pneumonia, lung cancer and influenza has also increased significantly. In the next two months, this incident caused a total of 12000 deaths. This was the "London Haze Event" that later shocked the world. Air pollution not only harms human health, but also seriously corrodes buildings and soil.

The direct cause of fog and haze in London is sulfur dioxide and dust pollution caused by coal burning. A lot of smoke from coal-fired factories, engine oil from cars and pollution clouds floating from the European continent make the air quality in London very poor. In London in those days, the industrial sewage discharge was very large, and 1000 tons of smoke floated out of the chimney every day. Emissions of 2000 tons of carbon dioxide, 140 tons of hydrochloric acid and 14 tons of fluoride. More seriously, coal dust contains ferric oxide, which can catalyze the oxidation of sulfur dioxide, another pollutant of coal combustion, to generate sulfur trioxide, and then combine with water adsorbed on the dust surface to generate sulfuric acid droplets. After mixing with steam, 800 tons of sulfuric acid is generated. Domestic coal burning has also aggravated air pollution. Before the era of central heating, tens of thousands of families in London could only burn coal to keep warm in the cold winter. Due to the post-war economic difficulties, the government exported high-quality coal abroad, while Londoners burned poor-quality coal, which made the pollution more serious. When the air is not circulating, these heavily polluted yellow smog are "trapped over London". Thick fog formed. These sulfuric acid droplets will have a strong stimulating effect after being inhaled into the respiratory system, which will make people who are weak sick and even die. The indirect cause of the fog and haze in London is the accumulation of air pollutants caused by the inversion layer that began on February 4, 65438.

After that, there were as many as 12 serious smog events in London, such as 1956, 1957 and 1962. In the mid-1970s, the "foggy days" in London decreased year by year, and 1980 further decreased. At present, the toxic smog in London has disappeared and become a world eco-city.

Second, the treatment process of fog and haze in London

1952 A serious smog incident in London prompted the British people to reflect deeply. The British government began to "control smog with heavy standards" and achieved very remarkable results. The smog control in London for more than 60 years since 1953 can be divided into four stages according to its air quality improvement trend.

The first stage is the preparation stage (1953- 1960). The Beaver Committee led by Sir Beaver was established by the British government on 1953 to investigate the causes of the smog incident and formulate a response plan. Under the impetus of the Beaver Committee, 1956, Britain promulgated the Clean Air Act, which specifically targeted at air pollution. The bill puts forward measures such as banning black smoke emission, raising the height of chimneys and establishing smoke-free areas, and makes great efforts in controlling the number of motor vehicles and adjusting the energy structure. At the same time, a Clean Air Committee was set up to supervise the improvement of air pollution. And get advice on air pollution control from people who are experienced, knowledgeable or responsible for air pollution control. Specific management measures include: local governments are responsible for delineating smoke control areas, transforming family fireplaces, replacing fuel, and prohibiting black smoke emission; Establish a reward and punishment mechanism, the local government will subsidize at least 70% of the reasonable cost of fireplace renovation in the control area, and those who violate the regulations will be fined 10- 100 or imprisoned for up to three months according to the circumstances. 1960, the concentration of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and black smoke in London decreased by 20.9% and 43.6% respectively.

The second stage is the stage of substantial reduction (1960- 1980). 1968, the British government revised and expanded the Clean Air Act, giving the minister of housing and local government responsible for controlling air pollution more authority, including the power to introduce new emission limits for boiler particulate matter and smoke. And the power to force local governments to set up new smoke control zones. 1974, the government promulgated the Pollution Control Law, which stipulated the composition of motor vehicle fuel and limited the sulfur content in oil products (used in motor vehicles or fireplaces). The core measure at this stage is to greatly expand the scope of smoke control area. By 1976, the coverage rate of tobacco control areas in Greater London has reached 90%. The concentrations of SO2 and black smoke in the air of London fluctuated slightly in the first stage, but in the second stage, the air quality of the whole city improved obviously. The concentrations of SO2 and black smoke both decreased significantly in a short time, and the 10 decreased by more than 80%. By 1975, the number of foggy days in London has been reduced from tens of days to 65438 days.

The third stage is a steady improvement stage (1980-2000). The focus of air control and treatment in London has gradually shifted from controlling coal burning to controlling motor vehicle pollution. The government has introduced or revised a series of bills. For example, automobile fuel law (198 1 year), air quality standard (1989), environmental protection law (1990) and road vehicle supervision law (199 1 year). National Air Quality Strategy (1997), Greater London Government Act (1999) and Pollution Prevention Act (1999) have improved the laws and regulations on air pollution control in London.

The fourth stage is the low-carbon development stage (200 1 up to now). At this time, the air quality in London has been greatly improved compared with that in the 1950s. The concentrations of sulfur dioxide and black smoke decreased by 84.2% and 47.4% respectively, and they are no longer the main pollutants in London. In 2002, the mayor of London released the air quality strategy of London after extensive consultation. It explains in detail how London can achieve the national air quality goals. In 2003, the British White Paper on Energy-Our Energy Future: Creating a Low-carbon Economy officially put forward the concept of low-carbon economy for the first time, and proposed to build a low-carbon society in 2050. Since then, London's air quality strategy has been revised twice in 2006 and 20 10. At present, the focus of air quality control in London is motor vehicle pollution control. The main pollutants are nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and PM 10. 93% of the smoke pollution in the lower air is controlled, and the harm of acid rain is basically eliminated. Today, London has become a "green garden city" and ranks first among the cities that attract the most tourists from all over the world.

Third, the main experience

(1) Establish and improve the system of laws and regulations to control smog according to law.

The once serious air pollution in London has aroused great concern from all walks of life in Britain. The specific performance is: (1) Treating haze according to law. 1956 Under the impetus of the famous Beaver Report, Britain promulgated the world's first air pollution prevention and control bill-the Clean Air Act. On this basis, in the 20th century, Britain mainly adopted "terminal treatment" to control air pollution. In addition to constantly improving the Clean Air Act, following 1968, Britain has successively promulgated the Pollution Control Act (1974), the Automobile Fuel Act (198 1) and the Air Quality Standard (/kloc). A series of air pollution prevention and control bills, such as the Environmental Law (1995), the Greater London Government Law (1999), the Pollution Prevention Law (1999) and the Climate Change Law (2008), strictly limit other tail gas emissions and formulate clear penalties. Comprehensively promote and eventually establish a low-carbon society ",taking promoting the establishment of a low-carbon society as a basic national policy. The British government promises to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 26-32% by 2020; By 2050, we will achieve the long-term goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 80%. (2) Formulate a national strategy to guide smog control. Since 1995, Britain has also formulated a national air quality strategy, which stipulates that all cities should evaluate and review air quality. For areas that do not meet the standards, the government must designate air quality management zones. And it is mandatory to meet the standards within the prescribed time limit. The European Union requires its member states that the number of days of air failure in 20 12 should not exceed 35 days, or they will face a huge fine of 450 million US dollars. In order to meet the standards, as early as 2003, the city government of London began to levy a "congestion charge" on private cars entering the city center. Then Britain put forward energy efficiency: government action plan (2004), climate change action plan (2005), British sustainable development strategy (2005), low-carbon building plan (2006), tax rebate and subsidy plan (2007) and British energy efficiency action plan. A series of plans and policies, such as the National Renewable Energy Plan (2008) and the Low-carbon Transition Plan (2009), show the attitude and determination of the British government to actively respond to climate change. In particular, the low-carbon transition plan in 2009 outlined the national strategic blueprint for the British government to develop a low-carbon economy, with the goal of reducing the UK's carbon emissions by 34 on the basis of 1990 by 2020. 7 million houses will achieve energy conservation, and more than 6.5438+0.5 million families will receive government subsidies to produce clean energy; 40% of electricity will come from low-carbon energy; The average carbon emissions of new cars will be reduced by 40%. Due to the vigorous promotion of Britain, the concept of low-carbon economy has spread rapidly around the world in recent years and has been widely recognized. (3) Increase financial input. In 2009, the British government allocated 3.2 billion pounds for energy-saving renovation of houses to compensate those families who took the initiative to install clean energy equipment at home, and it is estimated that 7 million families will benefit from it. In April, 2009, the Brown government announced that the "carbon budget" would be included in the government budget framework, making it applicable to all aspects of the economy and society, and investing an additional 654.38+004 billion pounds in industries related to the low-carbon economy. Therefore, Britain became the first country in the world to publish a "carbon budget". (4) Building a coordinated policy system. On the basis of using policy tools such as climate change tax and emissions trading mechanism, as well as low-carbon transportation, "clean coal" and carbon budget, Britain has given full play to the characteristics of various policy tools and plans, and formed an interconnected and interactive organic policy planning system. The low-carbon technology research and development promotion plan has been widely recognized by all sectors of society. A "low-carbon economy" interactive system based on the market, led by the government and led by all enterprises, public departments and residents has been initially formed to promote the transformation of low-carbon economy and the development of renewable energy. (5) Establish various special funds to promote the development of renewable energy. As a commercial fund invested by the British government with about 66 million pounds of climate change tax every year, the "carbon fund" operates according to the enterprise model. Effectively promote British business and public sectors to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and increase investment in low-carbon technologies such as renewable energy. In 2008, the British government launched the Environmental Improvement Fund, which can combine the government's support for the demonstration and deployment of low-carbon energy and energy-saving technologies with international development related to energy and environment, and provide corresponding financial support. In order to increase investment in green transportation and energy projects, in March of 20 10, Britain set up a green energy fund of 654.38 billion pounds (749 million euros) to transform the transportation system to use clean fuel, improve the utilization rate of low-carbon energy (such as wind energy, wave energy and solar energy), and create new jobs for thousands of people.

(B) the use of clean energy and other technologies, vigorously develop a low-carbon economy

When the London haze incident occurred, the highest concentration of smoke and dust in London reached 4,460 μ g/m3, and the daily average concentration of sulfur dioxide reached 3,830 μ g/m3+65,438+In the 1950s, the relevant authorities in London found that pollutants mainly came from industrial and domestic coal burning. Therefore, in addition to defining "smoke control zones", towns in this area are only allowed to burn smokeless fuel, and they also decided to increase the proportion of clean energy. Adopt central heating in winter; Power plants and heavy industrial facilities were moved to the suburbs; The government subsidized residents to rebuild gas appliance, and required all industrial enterprises in urban and suburban areas not to use coal and firewood as fuel, and the waste gas produced must be purified by physical and chemical methods before reaching the standard. Britain has also vigorously developed monitoring technology and established an atmospheric monitoring network. Since 196 1, Britain has established a national atmospheric monitoring network with 450 organizations. There are 1200 monitoring points in the monitoring network. Smoke and sulfur dioxide are sampled once an hour on average, and the amount of dust is measured once a month. Among them, London, Edinburgh and Sheffield are listed as key monitoring areas. Coupled with the popularization and application of environmental protection technology, it has played an important role in controlling air pollution and environmental protection in London.

With the improvement of air quality in Britain, great changes have taken place in the energy structure in Britain. 1965, coal accounts for 27%, electricity and clean gas fuel account for 24.5%, and fuel oil accounts for 43%. 1980 In the outer suburbs, only coal was used, and the proportion was further reduced to 5%. Electricity and clean gas fuel were increased to 5 1%, and fuel oil was 4 1%. In particular, the proportion of coal in the total energy consumption decreased from 90% of 1948 to 1998. However, the proportion of natural gas increased from 0 to 36%. In 2003, Britain formally put forward the concept of low-carbon economy for the first time, and will establish a low-carbon society in 2050. In 2008, Britain enacted the Climate Change Act. The government promises to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 26%-32% by 2020 and achieve the long-term goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 60% by 2050. In 2009, the British government announced the national strategic blueprint for developing a low-carbon economy and vigorously developed new energy sources. By 2020, renewable energy will account for 65,438+05% of energy supply, of which 40% of electricity will come from low-carbon fields (30.

(3) evacuation of population and industrial enterprises

In order to solve the problem of air pollution caused by the over-concentration of urban population and industrial enterprises, London built eight new towns in the late 1940s, and three new towns, peterborough, Milton Keynes and Northampton, were built in the north and northwest of the city in the late 1960s (the distances between these three new towns and the center of London ranged from 80km to133km). The construction of these new towns provided favorable conditions for population and industry to move out. On the other hand, new towns have also taken active measures to attract industrial enterprises to settle down (at that time, the practice was to delimit the scope of industrial zones, pave roads, build factories of different sizes for rent, pay attention to creating a good living environment, and vigorously publicize preferential conditions). Many factories have moved out because of the preferential policies of the government and the preferential conditions of new towns. From 1967, the industrial land in central London began to decrease. By 1974, 240,000 people moved out of the urban area, and then 42,000 people moved out. At the same time, the number of new town enterprises increased from 823 to 2558. The total population of the new town has also increased from 450,000 to 6.5438+0.36 million (including the relocated population in other areas).

(four) to strengthen the comprehensive management of motor vehicle exhaust emissions.

In the early 1980s, the number of motor vehicles in London reached 2.44 million, and road traffic jams became more and more serious. At the same time, the increase in the number of vehicles has also caused air pollution caused by motor vehicle exhaust. Faced with this grim situation, the London authorities have taken the following comprehensive control measures.

First, implement the transportation development strategy of changing to public transportation, walking, cycling and other fuel-saving and pollution-free ways, reduce the dependence on cars and effectively reduce the carbon dioxide emissions of motor vehicles. The specific measures are: setting up bus lanes, setting up a bicycle line network with the length of 1000 miles, setting up a tree-lined trail network, and investing in the development of new energy-saving and pollution-free public transport vehicles.

Second, expand the scope of traffic restrictions. In the past, traffic restrictions in London were mainly concentrated in the peak hours in the central area. With the development of urbanization and traffic, traffic problems and air quality problems in urban centers, the main radial roads and highways from inner london to London have become increasingly serious. Therefore, various areas in London have successively implemented a package of measures, mainly based on restrictions, supplemented by feasible land use and transportation policies, to prevent further deterioration of air quality and environment.

Third, the government issued a white paper on traffic conditions, informing the public that in order to limit the number of cars and reduce traffic jams and air pollution, parking fees will be raised from 2000, and all the original free parking lots of major companies and public places in the city will be changed into paid parking lots.

Fourth, strengthen the control and management of urban air quality. The short-term goal of air quality control set by the government is to reduce carbon dioxide emissions to the level of 65,438+0,990 by 2000. At the same time, it is suggested that the government formulate the control objectives and implementation rules of motor vehicle exhaust emission.

Fifth, strengthen the technological transformation of the automobile manufacturing industry and design and produce advanced environmentally-friendly cars. In order to control motor vehicle pollution, the British government has repeatedly revised and improved the provisions of the Clean Air Act to increase vehicle exhaust emissions, requiring all new cars to be equipped with purification devices to reduce nitrogen oxide emissions. The carbon dioxide emission standards of newly produced cars have been reduced by an average of 40% on the basis of 2007. Since 2003, the city government of London began to levy "congestion charges" to alleviate the congestion in central London. This policy has reduced air pollution caused by motor vehicle emissions, increased fiscal revenue and raised funds for the implementation of other traffic control measures.

In 2008, the London government implemented the low-pollution emission zone policy, aiming at speeding up the upgrading of vehicles with serious pollution, promoting the installation of emission reduction devices on old vehicles, reducing vehicle pollution emissions and improving the air quality in London. Vehicles driving in low-pollution emission areas must meet certain emission standards, otherwise they will be charged. The results show that compared with the areas outside the low pollution discharge area, the implementation of this measure reduces the pollution concentration of PM 10 by about 2.46% ~ 3.07%. Moreover, London's air quality strategy also emphasizes that in the future, the control of motor vehicle emissions will be strengthened by continuously improving the entry threshold of low-emission areas.

The City of London has also announced a stricter Transport 2025 plan to restrict private cars from entering London. It is planned to reduce the flow of private cars by 9% within 20 years, reduce more than 60,000 vehicles entering the traffic jam charging area every day, and reduce the exhaust emission 12%. While limiting automobile emissions, the British government vigorously promotes new energy vehicles and public transportation. London Plan 20 15.

(5) Take measures to control smog.

First, set up a special management and consulting organization. In order to strengthen the control of air pollution, the Greater London Council has identified 17 different trade organizations to formulate practical air pollution control measures.

Secondly, scientific research institutions participate in the control of air pollution. London attaches great importance to the participation of scientific research forces in air pollution control, and many national research institutions, universities and factories are widely involved in scientific research. For example, based on the measurement results of more than 200 monitoring stations in Britain 1, the contents of smoke and sulfur dioxide in the air are estimated, and different measures to control air pollution in different regions are put forward accordingly. Some institutions of higher learning, such as Aston University, Reading University, London Imperial College London, University of Wales, University of Sheffield and University of Leeds, have conducted extensive and in-depth research on automobile exhaust, air quality standards, pollutant control, the impact of air pollution on crops and soil, the improvement of instruments for measuring dust and other pollutants, the design and installation of chimneys and the development of environmental protection products.

Third, encourage citizens to actively participate in and supervise governance. London's achievements in air pollution prevention and control are not entirely attributed to the government, but major universities, environmental protection organizations and the media in Britain are also forming a joint force, and all the people are practitioners of air pollution control. The National Health Insurance System Foundation, jointly established by King's College London, Guy's Hospital London and St. Thomas' Hospital London, co-sponsored a seminar on "How to reduce air pollution to personal influence". This paper focuses on how every resident in London can improve the air quality by himself. In 20 10-03- 12, King's College London also launched a mobile phone software called "London Air" on several mobile phone operating system platforms, which pushed the air quality of London to users free of charge every hour, so that London residents could better understand the air quality of the city. Britain is the first country to inform the public of air traffic control information in real time. Official network.

British citizens have a profound tradition of autonomy and a strong social foundation in the discussion, decision-making, supervision and implementation of environmental issues. If the government is slightly negligent in controlling the air, the mainstream media will not whitewash the government, but boldly attack it. For example, in July of 20 12, the Sunday Times quoted an investigation report made by the environmental protection organization "Clean London Air" and questioned that the London city government only sprayed chemical solvents near the monitoring point. To beautify the air pollution index, British citizens' access to air information is not monopolized by the government. Citizens can directly request relevant data from government environmental protection agencies through the Freedom of Information Law and cannot be refused. The "British Air Quality Archives" website set up by the government and the "London Air Quality Network" set up by non-governmental organizations in cooperation with the environmental protection organization of King's College London publish real-time air quality data in London. The government will never dare to accuse non-governmental monitoring organizations of being "illegal" or "illegal".

Fourth, strengthen urban greening. London has built a large circular green belt around the city. By the 1980s, the area of green belt reached 4,434 square kilometers, and the ratio of green belt to urban area (1.58 square kilometers) reached 2.82: 1. The long-term green belt planning area can reach 579 1 km2. The ratio with the urban area can reach 3.67: 1. The construction of green belt in London has played an important role in replacing urban air, maintaining ecological balance, improving urban environment and controlling urban expansion. In terms of landscaping, London also attaches great importance to ecological gardens and advocates the concept of building a "garden city". This is the goal that London has been pursuing since the middle of last century. It aims at regulating urban atmospheric environment, maintaining ecological balance and biodiversity. This is a strategic measure to give full play to the greening function. At present, one third of central London is covered by gardens, public green spaces and forests. The construction of ecological gardens not only beautifies the city, improves the atmospheric environment and the overall quality of the city, but also attracts many investors and tourists with fresh air and beautiful and pleasant green ecological environment.

Fourthly, the enlightenment to smog control in China.

From the pioneer of industrial revolution to the leader of ecological civilization, Britain has provided reference for the industrialization and urbanization of other countries in the world.

1. Improve environmental protection laws and regulations and strengthen environmental legislation.

Only a strict government system can reduce pollution. The free market cannot solve the pollution problem. Pollution is regarded as an external factor in economics, which shows that a single company cannot pay the price for solving the pollution problem. Therefore, the company itself has no motivation to take the initiative. It needs a government system to restrain and standardize, so as to strictly enforce the law and reduce pollution. Further improve environmental protection laws and regulations and strengthen environmental legislation. Accelerate the formulation of supporting environmental laws and regulations, increase the punishment for environmental violations, effectively solve the problem of "low illegal cost and high law-abiding cost", strictly administer according to law, severely investigate and deal with environmental violations, and effectively solve the problems of local protectionism intervening in law enforcement; Strict law enforcement responsibility system and fault investigation system shall be implemented, and the inaction and dereliction of duty of law enforcement personnel shall be dealt with seriously.

2. Comprehensively plan and accelerate the implementation of the atmospheric environment control strategy.

Regional air pollution prevention and control planning is an important part of regional overall planning. Starting from coordinating the relationship between economic development and environmental protection, this paper puts forward an optimized scheme for improving and controlling the air pollution that has been caused. It is an important way to control air pollution to do a good job in regional air pollution prevention and control planning and take regional comprehensive prevention and control measures. At the same time, it is necessary to formulate scientific and technological plans for air pollution control and development plans for strategic emerging industries, transform comprehensive air control and utilization into emerging industries, completely eliminate hidden dangers, and vigorously.

Science and technology is the key to solve and control air pollution.

In the process of air pollution control in Britain, science and technology have played a key guiding role. The British government encourages enterprises to adopt air pollution control technology to transform their production processes, giving priority to non-polluting or less polluting processes, which is the fundamental way to prevent and control air pollution. The government requires enterprises to strictly operate the production process and choose suitable raw materials, which is conducive to reducing pollution or treating pollutants. Install waste gas purification device to control pollution sources. Make the quality of atmospheric environment meet the standard. In addition to tackling key problems to achieve pollution control goals and industrial breakthroughs, the more important significance of science and technology lies in providing reliable basis for national macro-decision through scientific research. The more scientific the decision-making process, the better the enforceability, and the more likely the policy will achieve better results.

4. Raise awareness, take multiple measures and take a multi-pronged approach.

Tmall us wechat reminds: remember to protect yourself when traveling in foggy days.

From the air pollution in 18 13 to the serious air pollution in 1952, Britain paid a huge price for industrialization. After that, Britain made up its mind to control air pollution in London. It took more than 20 years to fundamentally reverse the situation and 50 years to completely improve it. This shows that the air pollution control work is long-term and arduous. Even now, the British government still believes that there is still a lot of work to be done in air quality. Britain mentioned in its 2007 strategy that after decades of treatment, the impact of air pollution on the average life expectancy of British people still reaches about seven to eight months, and the annual direct medical expenses are about 20 billion pounds. Even by 2020, all the policies in the 2007 strategy have been thoroughly implemented. The British government still predicts that air pollution will shorten the average life expectancy of British people by five months. Therefore, the process of air quality recovery is not natural. This requires the government to make up its mind to formulate and implement relevant policies, and turn the public's concern about this issue into support and conscious implementation of relevant policies. In order to avoid the recurrence of disasters and ensure the needs of economic development to the greatest extent, the government needs to carry out strict management and vigorously invest in and popularize scientific and technological innovation in related fields, which is a feasible way to control environmental problems.