(C) Post-industrial period: structural adjustment and transformation of geological work.

Since 197s, developed countries such as the United States and Britain have entered the post-industrialization stage. At this stage, the intensity of resource consumption in developed countries has slowed down, domestic environmental problems have become increasingly prominent, and the supply of mineral resources has shifted from domestic to "two resources and two markets". Therefore, the structural adjustment of international geological survey institutions has redefined the orientation and development direction of national geological survey. The most typical example is that in 1994, after the US Geological Survey experienced the dispute of "withdrawal" and "protection", it put forward the "Strategic Plan of the US Geological Survey from 1995 to 25". In this plan, many strategic changes in geological survey work are put forward, such as "more emphasis on disaster reduction research, quality and availability of resources, non-traditional science" and "less emphasis on disaster relief research, distribution and quantity of resources, traditional geosciences". Not only the United States, but also the geological survey institutions in Australia, Britain, France, Canada, Japan, Sweden and Russia have made many organizational adjustments in the 198s and 199s, and great changes have taken place in their work direction, work fields, work priorities and work methods. These adjustments are mainly manifested in the following aspects.

1. Adjust and broaden the field of geological work, and enhance the social service function of geological work

In the post-industrial era, the social function of geological work has changed, and the research field has been continuously broadened, from mineral exploration to environmental research, such as the definition of safe disposal sites for soil, water, ordinary and toxic or radioactive wastes, the prevention and control of natural disasters, the geological factors of climate change, the underground storage of carbon dioxide, and the geoscience information that simulates future climate development, and so on. The adjustment of geological work structure varies in different countries, which mainly depends on the national conditions. The US Geological Survey pays more attention to hydrogeology, engineering geology and environmental geology, and there are similar situations in European countries. According to Jacques Varet(2)' s investigation and analysis of geological surveys in European countries, among the 27 available answers (33 countries were surveyed * * *), the areas where the workload of geological surveys increased the most were information supply, hydrogeology, natural disasters and pollution prevention, and the areas where the workload decreased the most were metal deposits, oil and gas, solid fuels, etc. (Table 2-2).

Table 2-2 Summary of the workload increase and decrease of thematic (field) geological surveys in major European countries

After entering the 21st century, the National Research Council of the United States requested the United States Geological Survey to shift from information collection to analysis, comprehensive interpretation and application of information to meet the needs of different users (Box 2-1).

Column 2-1 Strategic Change of the US Geological Survey

The US Geological Survey is an extremely important information providing and information coordinating institution, and the information provided and coordinated by it is related to some key issues in natural science. The US Geological Survey is evolving from an organization that found "what's there" when it was first established to an organization that tries to understand "why what's there" (that is, process understanding). In other words, we should not only know why, but also know why. In the near future, the US Geological Survey will be transformed into a natural science and information institution, which means that the work of the US Geological Survey will undergo strategic changes in the following three aspects.

The work of USGS should shift from passive research and analysis of information to active dissemination of information. This strategic shift means that it is far from enough for the US Geological Survey to collect first-hand observation data, and it should focus on data analysis, problem solving and information dissemination. However, this tilt does not mean that the US Geological Survey should weaken data collection or long-term effective data collection, but should conduct more analysis, synthesis and interpretation of observation data for different users.

The US Geological Survey should be transformed from a map producer to a manager and coordinator of geospatial data. Due to the application of modern high-tech such as GIS, GPS and RS, modern maps have a dynamic, multi-scale and multi-dimensional feature. In this new situation, the US Geological Survey should conduct basic research and applied research, develop research methods of geospatial databases, and formulate relevant standards and quality assurance systems. In the construction of geospatial data, we should: play a leading role.

from single-discipline research to multidisciplinary information Integrative Science, to solve problems related to the functions and processes of complex systems.

(compiled according to the Future Role and Opportunity of the US Geological Survey in 21)

After entering the post-industrial stage, the degree of land resources investigation has been high, and the struggle for sea resources and sovereignty has intensified, and marine mineral resources investigation has become a new hot field. Coastal developed countries regard the marine geological survey of their continental shelves and even exclusive economic zones as an important part of the national geological survey. For example, the United States has completed submarine geological mapping at the scale of 1: 1, on the continental shelf and 1: 2, on the exclusive economic zone. The US Geological Survey carried out the special work of "Marine and Coastal Geological Survey". In fiscal year 1994, the state allocated 35.365 million US dollars for it, and in fiscal year 1996, the allocation increased to 39.7 million US dollars. The British Geological Survey has always attached great importance to marine geological survey. From 1966 to 1991, the geological mapping of the British continental shelf and some continental slopes was completed on a scale of 1: 25,. Since then, some maps have been updated. Since 1975, the Geological Survey of Japan has carried out geological mapping of some continental shelves around it, and successively compiled regional submarine geological maps with a scale of 1: 1 million, 1: 2, and 1: 5, for representative small sea areas, as well as submarine geological maps around it with a scale of 1: 3 million and gravity anomaly maps and magnetic anomaly maps in the central North Pacific with a scale of 1: 2 million. Some other countries, such as France, Sweden and Finland, have also carried out mapping work at different scales in their own waters. In recent years, the United States, Japan and Canada have accelerated the research on natural gas hydrate in the sea area, trying to find out the resource potential as soon as possible, develop new technologies and realize the purpose of development and utilization.

2. Improving the research level of geological survey, vigorously developing modern high and new technology

The expansion of geological work field and the improvement of social service function have put forward new requirements for the research level and research ability of national geological institutions. In the past, the familiar geological prospecting and geological mapping work had a strong degree of professionalism and required a narrow range of knowledge. However, the development of new fields such as environment and ocean not only required the development of new working methods and the collection of new basic information, but also required the geological survey to play a "leading" role in multidisciplinary comprehensive research. Under the guidance of system theory, the task of solving major social problems such as environment and disasters and further serving the public with systematic, practical and easy-to-understand information products has promoted the development of geoscience in the direction of large geology, large resources and large environment, and continuously expanded the interdisciplinary research fields and related issues. The demonstration of "Future Role and Opportunity of the US Geological Survey" by the National Research Council of the United States reflects the new requirements of social demand for geological work in the post-industrial period.

geological survey needs new geological theory and new working methods: after the advent of plate tectonics theory, the concept of the earth as a whole system has been continuously strengthened, and then the theory of earth system science has been put forward, which has had a profound impact on the working methods of geological survey. Since the 199s, western developed countries have implemented a series of geological science plans, such as the "Earthscope" in the early 21st century in the United States, the lithosphere plan in Canada since 1984, and the strategic plan of "Earth System: From Process to Earth Management" put forward by the German Research Federation at the end of the 199s. These geoscience research plans have promoted the geological survey to varying degrees and improved the level of geological survey. In order to meet the needs of environmental geological work, the US Geological Survey attaches great importance to water resources investigation and brings water resources management into river basins. European countries have adjusted their mapping methods to meet the requirements of environmental investigation, and Russia has formulated a complete set of environmental geological mapping methods.

modern geological mapping needs to be supported by high technology: in order to meet the new requirements of geological work, we must rely on modern high technology to maximize the collection scope, quantity and quality of geological survey information. For example, with the continuous development of high-tech technologies, such as high-resolution aerospace remote sensing, advanced deep detection technology, and rapid field test and analysis technology, important technical systems such as advanced earth observation technology, extensive ground and underground detection technology, and rapid test and analysis technology have been formed in geological survey and evaluation, greatly improving the ability of regional geological survey. In modern geological mapping, in order to improve the degree of geological investigation and research (including the depth of exploration), it is necessary to adopt a variety of methods to comprehensively study and solve the major problems existing in regional geological mapping. Geophysical, geochemical and remote sensing surveys have become the main methods in regional geological mapping. Especially for geological mapping in thick coverage area, the traditional field geological mapping method is no longer applicable. At present, the usual practice is to quickly determine the basic outline of the main geological boundaries with remote sensing, geophysical or geochemical methods as the guide, and then go to the field to investigate and determine the boundaries of geological bodies, such as the geological mapping of the "hard rock area" in Australia and the moraine-covered area in Canada. A new generation of geological maps and databases are generated through sweeping (mapping) and multidisciplinary and multi-objective comprehensive research in some areas of strategic significance throughout the country.

To achieve a breakthrough in mineral exploration, new prospecting ideas and methods are needed: with the depletion of outcrop mines, it is more difficult to find minerals, and new ideas, theories and methods for prospecting are urgently needed. For example, Australia's Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Organization is implementing the "Glass Earth Project", the goal of which is to make the surface layer of the Australian continent as transparent as glass, so that prospectors can effectively discover mineral deposits by combining various data analysis and integration. Since 199s, Geological Survey of Canada has been implementing the "Exploration and Science" plan, developing different new geophysical and geochemical methods and multidisciplinary data comprehensive interpretation methods for different metallogenic belts, with a view to achieving a breakthrough in prospecting.

the application of information technology promotes the modernization of geological survey: with the development and application of information technology, developed countries have integrated global positioning system, remote sensing technology and geographic information system, created a field geological survey data acquisition system, and realized the digitalization of field data acquisition. The application of modern information technology has promoted the enjoyment of geological survey information resources, accelerated the exchange and dissemination of geological survey information, and greatly improved the service ability and service level of geological survey results. With the wide application of information technology, massive geological survey information can be digitally stored and managed according to certain standards, and maps can be drawn at any time according to the needs of different users. Since 199s, the construction of geological survey databases in the United States, Canada, Australia, Britain and other countries has entered a new stage. A large number of basic survey databases, such as small and medium-scale digital topographic map database, digital geological map database, geophysical database, land cover database and mine database, have been basically completed. The United States Geological Survey has established a global geodetic information system, including 53 kinds of data in 8 aspects, including maps, elevation, geology, hydrology, land cover, aerial photography and satellite remote sensing, with the United States as the main scope. The Australian Geological Survey has established 58 databases in 12 categories, including basic geography, geology, mineral resources, land, petroleum, ocean, environment and disasters, groundwater, geophysics, geochemistry, books and materials, and metadata, which are maintained and updated at any time. The database established and maintained by Geological Survey of Canada includes 13 categories and 46 databases, including basic geography, geology, natural resources, geophysics, geochemistry, ocean, forest, land, aerial photos and satellite images, and metadata.

the wide application of modern high technology and the formation and development of modern earth system science theory have promoted modern geological work to enter a new major historical turning point.

3. Economic globalization and strategic changes of mineral resources

It must be clearly seen that the focus of geological work in developed countries has changed obviously after entering the post-industrialization stage, but it does not mean that they do not care about resource demand, but the strategy and way of obtaining resources have changed greatly. With the end of the cold war between the United States and the Soviet Union, western countries put forward the concept of "economic globalization" and changed "resource war debate" into "resource market theory".

since the second world war, under the situation of hegemony between the United States and the Soviet Union and confrontation between the East and the West, mineral resources have been regarded as both the goal of competition and the means to subdue each other. This was the most important factor for many countries at that time, especially the two superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, to formulate mineral resources strategies. Its theoretical basis is called "resource war debate". In the late 198s, the disintegration of the former Soviet Union, the end of the Cold War, world multipolarization and economic competition became the theme of international relations. From a global perspective, mineral resources are guaranteed, but from a single country, all countries depend on the international market, and no country is truly self-sufficient.

since the 199s, due to economic globalization and global allocation of mineral resources, the competition for resources has not weakened, but has become more intense. The establishment and merger of multinational corporations is an important means to obtain overseas resources. Through mergers and acquisitions, mining companies introduce low-cost advanced production technology, strengthen cost control and management, realize scale operation, enhance international competitiveness and improve economic benefits. From 1995 to 24, there were 126 global base metal M&A cases with a transaction amount of more than $25 million, with a transaction amount of $34.516 billion. There are 177 cases of M&A in Jin, and the transaction amount reaches 42.24 billion US dollars, which makes the global resource competition reach a white-hot level. The large-scale expansion of multinational mining companies has further controlled the global resource market. For example, at present, the global iron ore export market is mainly controlled by CVRD, Rio Tinto and BHP Billiton. CVRD controls the whole European market, while the latter two dominate the Asian market, accounting for 8% of the global iron ore trade in 24. Global mining companies also dominate global mining financing.

strengthening the exploration and development of overseas mineral resources is an important way to solve the problem of mineral resources in various countries. Due to the fierce competition of mineral resources and the globalization of mining industry, there are huge economic risks and obvious resource security problems only relying on the mineral products trade in the market. Strengthening the exploration and development of overseas mineral resources can provide stable mineral products for China and become a common means for all countries in the world. On the one hand, geological survey institutions around the world have intensified their overseas geological survey work, and through the cooperation of global geological survey institutions, they can quickly understand the distribution and geological conditions of foreign mineral resources and provide effective services for domestic enterprises engaged in mineral exploration and development; On the other hand, mineral exploration needs to rely more on prospectors and primary exploration companies, while large mining companies rely on scale operation and increase exploration.