What is the ideological essence of bourgeois civil rights?

Two thousand three hundred and seventy-six years after the death of Confucius, Kang Youwei read his last words, thinking deeply and sorrowfully, and said, My husband! So that I can't see peace and have fun with Datong. What is this? I have been in China for two thousand years, the land of Wan Li, the son of 400 million gods. I can't see the rule of peace, and I am happy with Datong. What makes the earth see the law of peace earlier and welcome the joy of great harmony? Since Heaven laments how difficult it is for people to be born on the earth, then Hei Di is God, the holy king, the guarantor of all generations and the leader of the earth. Born in troubled times, it is based on the law of three generations of chaos, but it is fine and peaceful; It is precisely because of the country of birth that it represents the meaning of the third world and pays attention to the unity of the distance and size of the earth; It is the foundation of establishing a unified sky, kindness to the sky, teaching ordinary things with an air manifold, and kindness to the heart. The combination of ghosts and gods, mountains and rivers, princes and Shu Ren, insects and plants was unified in his teaching. He first loved the same kind of people with round skull and square toes, changed the methods of fighting and wrestling in troubled times, and established a new system of Wang Xingren in Spring and Autumn Annals. Its Tao is god-oriented, in harmony with heaven and earth, and nurtures all things. It is eternal, has a clear number, and is the final degree. It is small and big, thin and thick, with six connections and four kings, and it is everywhere. This system is nothing more than neutrality in the Yuan Dynasty, neutrality in one day, neutrality in one place, neutrality in the world, legislation in the world at any time, doing things in a benevolent manner, and caring for the people to eliminate their worries. The Book of Changes says: "Books are not full of words, and words are not full of meaning." Poems, books, rituals, music, the Book of Changes, and the Spring and Autumn Period are all his books, which were learned by word of mouth from 70 children. This system is a person who can be preserved at any time.

Sages are good, profound, knowledgeable and great. As the world has changed, the governance of roads has also changed, starting from rough and eventually becoming subtle. Educate people, give enough to others, have no resentment, no anger, strong and weak, no thieves, no jealousy. People swim when they eat, but poisonous snakes don't bite, beasts don't fight, insects don't touch, Zhu, Phoenix and Kirin swim in the suburbs, empty, and people don't make clothes. Then, we use the system to turn people into people with music.

Kang Youwei: Textual research on Confucius' reform, quoted from Jian Bozan and Zheng Tianting.

Editor-in-Chief: China General History Reference, Volume II, China.

Press 1980, page 78.

Kang Youwei on the Reform of Peter the Great in Russia

In today's world, Wan Li is the largest country in Russia, with 8 million Russian troops. In a word, the matter of cutting Liao belongs to Russia, and I take the bank railway as my virtue. Although that was the beginning of the Russian examination, 80,000 soldiers were defeated by Sweden with 10,000 people, isolated from Switzerland, with no schools, no training, no trade, no good workers, stupid and stubborn, ignorant and weak, and on the verge of extinction, which is inherent in China. Knowing that times have changed, Big Peter should make use of the situation, bravely establish martial arts, get rid of thousands of years of arrogant and stupid habits, and get rid of the theory that ministers obstruct big plans. He worked as a servant incognito, studied in the Netherlands and Britain, and traveled around the world. He was not ashamed to learn from others, and various methods were very popular. Wei Wen (Wei Wen, namely Wei Wengong, defended the country in the Spring and Autumn Period. ) Clothing with cloth, serving with materials to train farmers, business with benefits, respecting with persuasion, and teaching with materials are competent, which is to promote health. Gou Jian worked hard, worked hard, wove with his wife, became a distinguished guest, shook the poor and hanged himself, and camped with the people to swamp Wu. Peter combines everything, and his actions are extraordinary. It took him decades to make great progress in civilization, open up Wan Li and dominate the earth. Oh! Thunder and grass, those who change greatly, have great dominance. There are hundreds of millions of flowers and plants, waiting for thunder and glory. Peter's power of change is also powerful, so it should be magnificent and towering. Oh! In a place where a country with hundreds of years of history is dangerous and weak, it is appropriate to consider Sri Lanka.

-Kang Youwei: Preface to the coup of Peter the Great in Russia, quoted from Jane Bozan,

Zheng Tianting, editor-in-chief: Modern Part of General History Reference Materials of China (Volume II),

Pages 77-78.

Kang Youwei suggested imitating Japan for reform.

At the beginning of Japan's reform, there were three things: first, swearing that ministers should get rid of the old and innovate and adopt world public opinion and good laws of other countries; The second is to open a system bureau in the palace, recruit 20 generalists to participate, and renegotiate all political affairs and systems; Third, set up a summoned place for everyone in the world to write a letter, and the Japanese owner will see it when the time comes, saying that it is to pass the national decree to the bureau. This program of sincere reform and the order of laying hands on it cannot be easily changed, so I hope the emperor will adopt and use it. Xiu De was shaken because of the warning of the solar eclipse. In addition to the old cloth and new cloth, we vowed to send hundreds of officials to the ancestral temple on auspicious days, or declared that the world would reform with one heart and one mind, get rid of the old disadvantages, adopt the public opinion of the world, and adopt the good laws of various countries. Tend to be established, and the world is developing in all directions. Then, taking the south study room and the parliament hall as examples, a special system was set up in the imperial palace, and more than a dozen generalists were selected in the world to compile and appoint Wang as the president. Equal system, easy to discuss, the emperor himself. The first compromise is to consider the old and new policies, change a certain policy, add a certain item, draft articles of association, and make proper assessment. Its noon gate is equipped with a waiting place, and the censor is sent to supervise it. Many people in the world write letters, which are communicated and discussed by the system bureau, to understand the world and do their best. Or use or join the system bureau with the person who summoned the decree; In the future, talents hired by special economic departments will imitate the Tang system, and only when they gather can they extend the British pavilion, and those who choose them will be elected to the system bureau; All other provisions related to the New Deal shall be discussed and implemented by the Agency Bureau. Cover six as administrative officers, obey the rules and refuse to discuss, but there is no case to help hold the New Deal; The military cashier's megaphone is not in the state, and he immediately kneels on the ground. How to discuss it? The general administration is trapped in diplomacy and has many part-time jobs, so it is too busy to book and hold meetings. Political reform is a major event, so is it feasible to think of a special official? The duke of Zhou thought of the three kings and Dan. The "golden mean" refers to erudition, interrogation, deep thinking, discernment, and then perseverance. Today, there are officials who do things without consultation. For example, they have hands, feet and no brains, and their noses and mouths are both eyes and ears. It is better to get rid of learning and speculation, but to be faithful, with no lights at night and no eyes in the pool. If we start discussions, set up a special official, and then reform Baidu, we can get details. When the New Deal was implemented, special bureaus were set up inside and outside.

The first is the Law Bureau, which examines the Law of Nations and thinks that negotiations are equal, or adopts a new law, which is applicable to trading ports, so as to enter the conference on the Law of Nations.

Second, the tax bureau is responsible for using international tax rules to determine the system of taxation, household registration, customs duties, profit collection, statistics, industry development, public debt and litigation documents.

Third, the school bureau is in the hands of capital. The provinces, namely academies and Buddhist temples, are divided into disciplines, teaching, politics, medical law, agriculture and mining, manufacturing, anecdotes and languages of various countries. Don't rely on big or small, regardless of public or private, encourage teachers, students and girls to learn. Those who have new books, new art and new equipment will be rewarded and advised.

Fourth, the Agricultural and Commercial Bureau is in charge of all planting methods, land suitability, reclamation, competition for treasures, comparison of factories, inspection of local products, price calculation, currency determination, commercial legislation and persuasion of business students.

The Works Bureau is responsible for factories, machinery and civil engineering.

Sixth, the Bureau of Mines is in charge of all mines, mining science and mining rules in the world, and all miners are in charge.

7. The Railway Bureau is responsible for opening the railways in the world.

Eight, the post office, responsible for repairing world roads and letters and telegrams.

Nine, mint, palm casting gold, silver, copper, set up a bank, manufacturing paper money, try its weight.

Ten, the tourism bureau, Zhang sent people to study abroad, one method and one technique, should be detailed, and I hope that the tourism scholars will report it.

Xi. The essence of State Administration and Taixi Politics and Arts is not an official but a society. There are few officials but many people, and many officials will have leisure time. Therefore, there are school societies, farming and mulberry societies, trading societies, disease prevention societies, astronomical societies, geographical societies, major trade unions, medical societies, Mandarin societies, law societies, dissecting societies, plant societies, animal societies and so on.

Twelve, armament bureau, militia, buy iron boats, talk about foreign exercises, learn to drive, talk about naval battles.

Twelve bureaus were established and new measures were formulated. All the new policies agreed by the system bureau were handed over to the 12 th bureau for implementation.

-Kang Youwei's Collection of Jieshi Letters, quoted from Tsinghua University History Department:

1898 Literature Department of the Reform Day of 1898, Shanghai Bookstore Press 1998.

Edition, pp. 555 ~ 556.

Sun Yat-sen explained the revolutionary program.

The so-called national revolutionaries, the people of a country have the spirit of freedom, equality and fraternity, that is, they all bear the responsibility of revolution, and the military government is its cardinal. From now on, the responsibility of the people is the responsibility of the military government, and the work of the military government is the work of the people. The military government and the people worked together to fulfill their responsibilities. With special exposure, the economy of today's revolution and the foundation of governing the country in the future will be announced to the world:

(1) expel the Tatars. Today's Manzhouli, the East Lake beyond the Great Wall, was once a frontier disaster of the Ming Dynasty; After the China Rebellion, he marched into Shanhaiguan Pass and destroyed my China. According to my government, he forced me Han Chinese to be his slaves, and those who didn't go with him killed hundreds of millions. I Han people who perished in 260 years! The Manchukuo government is extremely vicious, and now its mind is full of profits. As the righteous teacher pointed out, it will revert to that government and return my sovereignty. Its Manchu soldiers, such as those who repent and surrender, are exempt from their sins; Dare to resist, kill without forgiveness! Han Chinese are traitors of Manchu slaves, and so are Manchu slaves.

(2) Restore China. China, China's China, China's politics, China's laissez-faire, after expelling the Tatars, restore our nation's country. Those who dare to do what Shi Jingtang and Wu Sangui did will be attacked by the whole world!

(3) The establishment of the Republic of China. Today, the people's revolution is to establish a national government, and all citizens have equal rights to participate in political power. The president is elected by the people. Parliament is composed of members elected by the people, and formulates the Constitution of the Republic of China, which everyone abides by. Anyone who dares to have an imperial system will be attacked by the world!

(4) Equal land ownership. The well-being of civilization is enjoyed equally by all citizens. When improving the social and economic organization, the land price in the world is recognized. Its existing land price still belongs to the original owner; After the revolution, the price increase of social improvement and progress belongs to the state and is shared by the people. A country that has established a society can provide enough for people to support their families, and everyone in the world can't take its place. Those who dare to have monopoly power to control people's lives, abandon it with the public!

-Sun Yat-sen: "Declaration of the League", quoted from Jane Bozan and Zheng Tianting;

China General History Reference, Modern Part II, pp. 279-280.

Sun Yat-sen's constitutional view

The word "constitution" enjoyed by everyone recently is the Manchu government. It also knows that it is self-defeating to send slaves abroad to inspect politics and get some imperial edicts to prepare for constitutionalism. Not to mention the Constitution of the Republic of China. Looking at the constitutions of various countries, the brothers found that the written constitution of the United States is the best, and the unwritten constitution of Britain is the best. You can't learn English, and you don't have to learn beauty. The British Constitution requires the separation of the three powers, and the executive, legislative and judicial powers are not unified. This has been a habit since six or seven hundred years ago, but the boundaries are not clear. Later, based on the British system, Montesquieu of France joined his own ideals and became a family school. The American Constitution is based on Montesquieu's theory, which makes the boundaries of the three powers clearer. A hundred years ago, it was the most perfect. 120 years, although it has been revised several times, it has remained basically unchanged. However, in the past hundred years, American civilization has made progress day by day, and land and property have also increased. At that time, the constitution no longer applied. Brothers mean that the future constitution of the Republic of China is to create a new doctrine called "separation of five powers".

-Sun Yat-sen: The Three People's Principles and the Future of China, quoted by Jane Bozan,

Zheng Tianting, Editor-in-Chief: General History Reference of China, Modern Section.

Volume II, page 29 1.

2. Text comments

How did Kang Youwei gradually embark on the road of learning from the West and advocating reform?

Kang Youwei (1858- 1927), a native of Nanhai, Guangdong Province, was originally named Zuyi, whose real name was Guangsha and whose name was Chang Su. He was born in a bureaucratic landlord family, and his father was a magistrate in Jiangxi. Kang Youwei received feudal orthodox education since childhood. When I was young, I was educated by Zhu Ciqi, a famous Confucian in Lingnan. He grew tired of burying his head in old paper piles all day, so he sat quietly behind closed doors to nourish his mind and adjust his mentality. He was very emotional. "I suddenly saw that everything in heaven and earth was one with me, thinking that the sage was happy to laugh, and suddenly I was bored to cry when I thought of suffering." He also went to Xiqiao Mountain, lived in Baiyun Cave, studied Buddhist and Taoist classics, and "cultivated the gods to discard the dross". This actually reflects his suspicion and rejection of traditional learning and thinking, and he wants to find another way but has no clear goal at the moment. At this moment, he came into contact with the brewing reform and improvement ideas in his contacts with friends, and traveled to Hong Kong for a short time (1879), witnessed the weather of capitalist civilization with his own eyes, began to realize that the capitalist system was more advanced than the feudal system in China, and sprouted the desire of "seeking truth from the west". He bought many western books and studied hard. In the past, the academic radial of traditional classics has also changed, from worshipping China's ancient classics to respecting China's modern classics, showing the pursuit of explaining "words and meanings" with China's modern classics. The outbreak of the Sino-French war further inspired Kang Youwei's feeling of "feeling the national disaster and loving people's livelihood", and he explored the way to save it more closely. 1888, he took the opportunity to study for the exam in Beijing, wrote to Emperor Guangxu for the first time, and put forward his political ideas of "changing the law", "understanding the current situation" and "being cautious about the current situation". But this time, the petition was opposed by the die-hards, not seen by Emperor Guangxu, but attacked and ridiculed by the die-hards. However, Kang Youwei was not discouraged. In the following years, he gave lectures in a library in Guangzhou, trained a group of fellow reformers, and wrote "New Learning Test" and "Confucius Reform Test", which laid a theoretical foundation for his reform. Stimulated by the failure of the Qing Dynasty in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, and forced to sign treaty of shimonoseki, which seriously humiliated the country, Kang Youwei led and launched a letter to the bus in early May of 1895, which opened the prelude to the official opening of the Reform Movement. In the practice of leading the Reform Movement in the following years, he constantly enriched and improved the ideological and political resources of the capitalist countries to transform and transform China, and finally tried to reform with the help of Emperor Guangxu.

Liang Qichao's Thought of Civil Rights

Liang Qichao (1873- 1929), a native of Xinhui City, Guangdong Province, was exceptionally clever since he was a child. He is famous as a "prodigy", 1 1 year-old scholar, 16-year-old scholar. Kang Youwei set up a museum to give lectures in Guangzhou. Liang Qichao heard about it and went to inquire. He was deeply impressed by Kang Youwei's preaching, so he was led to the road of reform and gradually established his own reform thought. In the following years, Liang Qichao was an expert in the propaganda and instigation of the reform, especially in expounding the thought of civil rights. During the Reform Movement of 1898, Liang Qichao immediately expounded the thought of civil rights. Based on the theory of bourgeois evolution and the theory of "Ram III" (which is also an important part of Kang Youwei's theory of "Tuogu Reform"), he reformed it externally, indicating that according to the principle of "three generations interacting and step by step", today's history will surely enter the world where people are masters of their own affairs, and to promote civil rights, it is necessary to set up a parliament and broaden people's wisdom. People believe that "strength is produced by wise men" and that "strength and wisdom are interdependent." In the past, to suppress civil rights, we must take the wisdom of the people as the first meaning; To extend civil rights today, we must take the wisdom of the people as the first meaning. Of course, the "civil rights" and "democracy" advocated by him during this period are closely related, but they are also very different. He wanted to promote civil rights on the premise of constitutional monarchy rather than democratic republic, so he proposed that "to promote civil rights, we should first promote gentry's rights, starting with learning". In this way, the so-called "promoting civil rights" has great indirectness. Liang Qichao fled overseas after the failure of the Reform Movement of 1898, but his reform thought did not disappear. On the contrary, it develops in a new way. Judging from his civil rights thought, his Qing Yi Bao even took "advocating civil rights" as its "sole purpose". At this time, he expounded the rights and obligations of "citizens" and criticized the slave thought caused by long-term feudal autocracy. He believes that under the autocratic system of taking the family as the country, China people "never knew that there were so-called civil rights between heaven and earth", and for thousands of years, only slaves in China had no "citizens". This situation should change. China people should have a sense of "citizenship" and establish the concept of rights and obligations. In this way, his concept of civil rights has obviously reached a new height. Of course, with the rise and development of the democratic revolutionary movement, the revolutionary democratic thought is more typical and profound. In contrast, Liang Qichao's democratic thought is inevitably dwarfed. However, there are more similarities and similarities between them.

Sun Yat-sen's Thought of Civil Rights

In the ideological system of the Three People's Principles founded by Sun Yat-sen, it is generally believed that civil rights are the core and at the highest level. As early as Sun Yat-sen's founding meeting, his idea was initially possessed. Zhong Xing's pledge is: "expel the Tatars, restore China, and establish a coalition government ...". Among them, "expelling the Tatars and restoring China" is the content of nationalism, and "establishing a coalition government" is the content of civil rights. Of course, at this time, the ideological system of the Three People's Principles has not yet formed. If "anti-Manchu" nationalism can be said to have a clear and firm goal, then the civil rights plan at this time is rather hazy. What will China's "coalition government" look like in the future? Sun Yat-sen can't have a specific design, but an approximate ideal that the regime model of western capitalist countries believes in. By 1905, the alliance was established, and the political program of "expelling the Tatars, restoring China, establishing the Republic of China, and sharing land rights" was established. Among them, the first eight words in the oath of the Hui people replaced the "establishment of a Coalition government" with "establishment of the Republic of China", which especially increased the livelihood content of "equal land rights". In fact, this is not only richer than the previous supplement, but also the contents of nationalism and civil rights are greatly expanded and refined, which is reflected in the explanations of the Three People's Principles made by Sun Yat-sen and others in many important documents in this issue. As far as civil rights are concerned, the Military Manifesto designed such a bourgeois republic plan: "The national government will be established by the civilian revolution, and all citizens will enjoy equal rights to participate in political power. The president is elected by the people. Parliament is composed of members elected by the people, and formulates the Constitution of the Republic of China, which everyone abides by. Those who dare to have an imperial system will be attacked by the world! " Obviously, this is Sun Yat-sen's targeted design, which not only draws lessons from the existing regime model of western capitalist countries, but also draws lessons from the relevant theories of western bourgeois politicians and thinkers (such as Montesquieu's Spirit of Law and Rousseau's Theory of Social Contract). ), and at the same time with the actual situation in China. In Sun Yat-sen's civil rights thought, some aspects of creativity are obvious, such as "separation of five powers" is a typical example.