Crimean War: the Beginning of Modern War

Crimean War: the Beginning of Modern War

The Crimean War broke out in Europe from 1853 to 1856, and it was also the largest international war after the Napoleonic Wars. It is also called the Eastern War in Russia. The cause of the war was that Russia, Britain and France competed for the rights of Asia Minor. The battlefield is mainly in the Crimean peninsula along the Black Sea. At first, it was called the "Ninth Russian-Turkish War", but later it was called the "Crimean War" because its longest and most important battle took place in the Crimean Peninsula. The Crimean War is an important spiritual symbol of Russia's resistance to Europe, which ended with Russian peace and the signing of the Paris Peace Treaty.

What is the background of this war?

Since the establishment of Romanov Dynasty in Russia, expansion to Caucasus and Black Sea has been an established national policy. Therefore, from 1676 to 1829, Russia launched eight Russian-Turkish wars in succession, expanding its territory to the northern shore of the Black Sea and the Caucasus.

However, the Black Sea Strait, the outlet of the Black Sea, is still controlled by the Ottoman Turkish Empire, which restricts the navigation and operations of the Russian Black Sea Fleet. In order to seize the right of passage in the Black Sea Strait and plunder more Turkish land in the Balkans and Caucasus, Tsar Nicholas I was determined to launch a Russian-Turkish war again.

Ottoman Turkish Empire has been seriously declining in the19th century. Balkan countries under its control took this opportunity to launch independence movements one after another. Known as the "near east issue"). Britain is worried that Russia's expansion into Turkey will threaten its traditional sphere of influence in the Near and Middle East. Austria is also eyeing the Balkans, so naturally it cannot sit idly by and watch Russia's actions in the Balkans. Although France has little interest in the Balkans and the Middle East, it is naturally willing to sow discord and promote the disintegration of the holy alliance after Napoleon when it saw that the anti-French four-nation holy alliance began to split on the Turkish issue.

Ottoman Turkish Empire has been seriously declining in the19th century. Balkan countries under its control took this opportunity to launch independence movements one after another. Known as the "near east issue"). Britain is worried that Russia's expansion into Turkey will threaten its traditional sphere of influence in the Near and Middle East. Austria is also eyeing the Balkans, so naturally it cannot sit idly by and watch Russia's actions in the Balkans. Although France has little interest in the Balkans and the Middle East, it is naturally willing to sow discord and promote the disintegration of the holy alliance after Napoleon when it saw that the anti-French four-nation holy alliance began to split on the Turkish issue.

First, in the early days of the Crimean War, it was mainly the confrontation between Russia and Turkey. The armies of both sides have been making strategic maneuvers, and there is no large-scale engagement. At the same time, the logistics and transportation of Russia and Turkey are highly dependent on the Black Sea route.

To this end, Russia decided to destroy the Turkish navy as soon as possible. Subsequently, Russian Admiral Nasimov led the fleet into the Sinop military port in Turkey, demanding that the Turkish navy surrender. After being rejected by Turkey, the Russian army launched an attack in the early morning and wiped out the main force of the Turkish navy.

Nasimov became famous in World War I, while the Turks lost control of the Black Sea. When Britain and France heard the news, they acted immediately and joined the Russian-Turkish war.

Second, at the stage of Russia's isolation, Britain and France jointly issued an ultimatum to Russia, demanding that Russia withdraw from Romania, which was rejected by Nicholas I. Britain and France immediately formed an alliance with Turkey and declared war on Russia. At the beginning of April, Britain and France arrived in Turkey and began to plan to land directly on the Crimean Peninsula in Russia, occupy the fortress of Sevastopol and destroy the Russian Black Sea Fleet.

Nicholas I didn't notice the arrival of England and France. He thinks that the other two countries in the Holy Alliance will restrict Britain and France. Unexpectedly, Prussia ignored Russia's request for intervention because it was dissatisfied with Russia's partiality to Austria in the Puo-Austria dispute. Intervention.

With the support of Austria, Turkey immediately crustily skin of head launched a counterattack in July 1854, driving Russian troops back to Ukraine.

Austria put forward the conditions of truce mediation, but the conditions were very harsh, demanding that Russia give up all the benefits obtained after the eighth Russian-Turkish war, which was flatly rejected by Nicholas I. As a result, Britain and France immediately began the Crimean landing operation.

Third, the British and French allied forces landed in Crimea, and the British and French fleets surrounded Sevastopol and blocked the Black Sea Fleet in the port. Due to the insufficient strength of the peninsula army and the poor naval strength, the Russian army can only let the British and French allied forces land, and intends to use the land war that the Russian army is good at to resist the land attack of Britain and France.

But when it comes to land warfare, the Russians are no longer rivals of Britain and France. The British and French armies have been equipped with long-range mini rifles, while the Russian army is still using old-fashioned smooth-bore rifles.

In the Battle of Alma River, the British and French allied forces easily defeated the Russian army and then marched on Sevastopol. At the end of September, the British and French allied forces surrounded Sevastopol, and then began to bombard the Russian naval fortress continuously.

10 June 17, Kornilov, commander of Sevastopol fortress, was killed by the shells of the British and French allied forces. The Russian army outside the encirclement realized that the fortress was in a critical situation and immediately launched the Battle of Balaclava in an attempt to break through the encirclement. Facing the conflict between Russian cavalry, British commander colin campbell did not use the traditional phalanx to fight, but arranged the infantry in two horizontal rows.

Because of the long range of the mini rifle, the British "thin red line" successfully blocked the Russian cavalry and became a classic example of the British army. On the contrary, the British light cavalry brigade tried to attack the Russian artillery positions, but was defeated.

The Russian army volleyed in three directions and was almost wiped out in 20 minutes. Later, the English poet Tennyson wrote a poem "The Charge of the Light Cavalry". These two battles declared the absolute superiority of modern firearms over cavalry, and heralded major changes in military technology and tactics. In the end, Russian rescue operation ended in failure.

Subsequently, the Russian army launched a larger-scale battle of Inkelman in an attempt to break through, which was also a fiasco. 165438+ 10 in June, a storm hit the Crimean peninsula, and the British and French allied forces suffered heavy losses in non-combat.

The study and observation of this storm became the beginning of weather forecast for later generations. 1855 65438+ 10, the kingdom of Sardinia sent troops to the war in order to gain the support of France in the war and unify Italy in the future. On March 2, Nicholas I, who received successive reports of defeat, died suddenly. There are also rumors that he committed suicide because he was defeated at the front.

The new Russian government began to try to negotiate, but in order to gain more chips in the negotiations, Britain and France increased the siege of Sevastopol.

Fourth, Sevastopol fell. Cholera spread in the British-French allied forces, and the field ambulance team led by Nightingale began to provide medical services for the British-French allied forces, saving the lives of many soldiers and becoming the origin of field hospitals and modern nursing systems. Due to the tenacious resistance of the Russian army, the attack of the British and French allied forces was repelled many times. Many of these battles were recorded by the young Russian artillery company commander lev tolstoy, who became the earliest war correspondent in Russia.

Until September 8. The French general McMahon led the army to capture the key of the Russian position-Marakov fortress. The Russian army lost its resistance pillar and immediately began to break through. The British and French allied forces finally occupied Sevastopol, which means that the Russian army has been completely defeated.

1854, although the Russian army also launched an offensive in the Caucasus and defeated the Turkish army, its tactical victory could not make up for the Russian army's defeat in Crimea. Therefore, the Russians finally chose a truce.

Finally, the war ushered in the final result. 1856 At the beginning of this year, the warring parties started peace talks in Paris. After two months of bargaining, the two sides signed the Paris Peace Treaty.

Russia regained Crimea, but lost a lot of land it had previously seized in the Balkans and Caucasus. The Black Sea declared neutrality, and the Russian army was forbidden to rebuild its fleet and military facilities in the Black Sea; Turkey's suzerainty over its affiliated countries is recognized and protected. Russia was forced to accept these conditions.

The Crimean War is the beginning of modern war and an important stage in the history of military strength, weapons and equipment, and military art. Many new means of war have entered the historical stage, and the replacement of technology by manpower has become an important factor in determining the outcome of the war.

Technological inventions such as new rifles, steam-powered warships, railways and telegrams played an important role in the war. The Crimean War led to the disintegration of holy alliance after the Napoleonic Wars, and Austria and Tsarist Russia were hostile until the First World War.

European affairs, such as helping Sardinia defeat Austria and unify Italy; Britain retains its inherent rights in the Near and Middle East. Russia realized its backwardness from this war, which triggered a series of reforms of Alexander II.