Answers to exercises in the three compulsory high school geography textbooks

1.1 Earth’s cosmic environment

Celestial body system: Celestial bodies attract and revolve around each other due to the gravitational force to form a celestial body system. Structural level (omitted)

Visible universe: also known as the "known universe", refers to the limited universe that humans have observed, with a radius of approximately 14 billion light-years.

Conditions for the existence of life on Earth:

External conditions: Stable solar illumination

Large and asteroids go their own way, keeping the Earth in a relatively safe cosmic environment

Internal conditions: The distance between the sun and the earth is moderate (150 million kilometers) - suitable temperature

The earth's volume and mass are moderate and the original atmosphere has evolved over a long period of time - an atmosphere suitable for biological breathing

The water vapor inside the earth escapes to form a hydrosphere

1.2 The impact of the sun on the earth

1. Solar radiation: The sun radiates into the universe in the form of electromagnetic waves energy.

1 Energy source: Nuclear fusion reaction in the center of the sun (four hydrogen nuclei fuse into helium nuclei and release a large amount of energy);

2 Characteristics: Solar radiation is short-wave radiation. Energy is mainly concentrated in the visible light part with shorter wavelength;

3 Significance: Maintaining surface temperature, the main driving force for atmospheric movement, water cycle and life activities on the earth, and the main energy for human production and life.

Solar constant: An energy index indicating the amount of solar radiation reaching the upper boundary of the atmosphere, with a size of 8.24 J/cm2.

2: The impact of solar activity on the earth

1 The external structure of the sun: refers to the structure of the sun’s atmosphere, which is divided into three layers: photosphere, chromosphere and corona from the inside to the outside< /p>

2 Impact on the Earth: (Sunspots are a sign of solar activity, with a cycle of about 11 years)

(Atmosphere) Impact of Solar Activity

Exterior Coronal solar wind magnetic storms, auroras

Chromospheric flares interfere with radio shortwave communications

Solar prominences

The impact of photospheric sunspots on the climate on Earth

1.3 Movement of the Earth

1. Basic characteristics of the Earth’s revolution and rotation

Revolution and rotation

The orbit is an ellipse approximately a perfect circle

The direction is from west to east (counterclockwise when viewed above the North Pole) From west to east (counterclockwise when viewed above the North Pole, clockwise when viewed above the South Pole)

Period sidereal year (365d6h9m10s) Sidereal day (23 hours, 56 minutes and 4 seconds) ) a true period

The average angular velocity is 1?/day Perihelion (early January) - fastest

Aphelion (early July) - slowest The same everywhere, 15? (per hour) Except for the poles)

The average linear speed is 30 kilometers/hour, which decreases from the equator to the poles. The latitude is the same and the linear speed is the same;

The equator is 1670Km\h, and the poles are 0

2. The geographical significance of the earth's rotation

(1) Day and night replacement: the cycle is one solar day (24h). Interpretation of morning and evening lines.

(2) Local time: different times due to different longitudes. Early in the east and late in the west.

(3) Geostrophic deflection: The direction of movement of objects moving horizontally along the earth's surface deviates, to the right in the northern hemisphere, to the left in the southern hemisphere, and not at the equator. (Use your right hand for interpretation in the Northern Hemisphere, and your left hand for the Southern Hemisphere)

3. The relationship between the Earth’s rotation and revolution:

(1) Equatorial angle: the intersection angle between the equatorial plane and the ecliptic plane. It is currently about 23.5?. If the yellow-red intersection angle becomes larger, the tropical and cold zones will expand, and the temperate zone will shrink. If the yellow-red intersection angle becomes smaller, the temperate zone will expand and the tropical and cold zones will shrink.

(2) Due to the existence of the yellow-red angle and the direction of the earth's axis remaining unchanged, the sun's direct point moves backward between the south and north Tropics of Cancer

Four: Earth's revolution The geographical significance of The phenomenon of polar day appears. In the other hemisphere, the day is shorter than the night. The higher the latitude, the shorter the day. The phenomenon of polar night appears near the pole.

2) The conditions of a certain place throughout the year: the summer solstice has the longest day and the winter solstice has the shortest day.

3) Vernal and autumnal equinoxes: equinoxes around the world;

4) Days and nights are equinoxed all year round at the equator. The higher the latitude, the greater the change in day and night length.

2 Changes in the height of the sun at noon:

1) At sunrise and sunset (dawn and dusk lines), the height of the sun = 0 degrees. The maximum sun height in a day is the height of the sun at noon. That is the height of the sun at 12 o'clock local time.

2) The global situation at a certain time: the height of the noon sun decreases from the latitude of the direct point to both sides. The farther away from the direct point, the smaller the height of the noon sun.

3) The situation of a certain place throughout the year: the area north of the Tropic of Cancer has a maximum value on June 22 and a minimum value on December 22; the area south of the Tropic of Cancer has a minimum value on June 22 value, the maximum value appears on December 22; in the area between the regression lines, the maximum value appears when the direct point passes through this latitude (that is, direct sunlight), and the minimum value appears on the winter solstice.

3 The formation and division of seasons: astronomical four seasons (the season with the highest sun altitude and longest day length in a year is summer, and vice versa, winter, such as the traditional four seasons in my country), climatic four seasons (summer in the northern hemisphere 6 , 7, 8, winter 12, 1, 2)

4 The formation and division of the five zones: divided by the Tropic of Cancer and the Polar Circle.

Regression line = angle between yellow and red, polar circle = 90 degrees - angle between yellow and red

5: Interpretation of illumination diagram

(1) Judgment The Earth's rotation is counterclockwise when viewed from the North Pole, and clockwise when viewed from the South Pole; or looking at longitude, the direction of increasing east longitude degrees (or decreasing west longitude degrees) is the direction of the earth's rotation.

< p> (2) Determine the solar term, date and latitude of the direct point of the sun. The twilight circle passes the pole (or coincides with a meridian). The direct point of the sun is at the equator, which is the spring and autumn equinox. The twilight line is tangent to the polar circle. If the Arctic Circle is The polar day phenomenon is the summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere, and the direct point of the sun is at the Tropic of Cancer. If the Arctic Circle is the polar night phenomenon, it is the winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere, and the direct sun point is at the Tropic of Cancer.

The longitude and latitude of the direct point are determined: the latitude is determined by the latitude of the direct latitude, and the longitude is determined by the longitude of 12 o'clock in local time

(3) When determining the place in the illumination diagram, the sun The meridian where the direct point is located (that is, the central meridian of the day hemisphere) is 12 o'clock, the central meridian of the night hemisphere is 0 o'clock, the meridian where the morning line intersects with the equator is 6 o'clock, and the meridian where the evening line intersects the equator is 18 o'clock.

(4) Determine the length of day and night: Day length = (12 - sunrise time) × 2 = (sunset time - 12) × 2.

(5) Calculate the noon sun altitude angle

The noon sun altitude at a certain latitude = 900 - the latitude difference (latitude distance) between this latitude and the direct point.

Six: Calculation of regional time and local time

1 Local time: local time difference between two places = longitude difference × 4 minutes, add east and subtract west.

2 Zone time: Determine the time zone of the two places, calculate the difference in hours between the two places, add east and west and subtract. T1-T2=N1-N2 (East time zone is positive, West time zone is negative), T is the zone time, and N is the time zone serial number.

3 The relationship between local time and zone time: zone time = local time on the central meridian of the time zone.

4 International Date Line: It is artificially demarcated to avoid confusion of dates on the earth. There are three places that do not coincide with the 1800 meridian; in date conversion, when passing through the date line from east to west, one day is added to the date. , passing through the date line from west to east, the date minus one day.

1.4 The structure of the Earth

1. The external structure of the Earth

The outer crust can be divided into three outer layers: the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the biosphere.

2. Internal Structure of the Earth

The division of the Earth’s internal circles is based on the propagation method and propagation speed of seismic waves.

Characteristics of the circle range

Solid state above the Moho surface of the earth’s crust: average thickness 17 kilometers (average thickness of the continental part is about 33 kilometers, average thickness of the oceanic part is about 6 kilometers) . The higher the terrain, the thicker the crust.

Moho surface (33km below the ground, the wave speed of longitudinal and transverse waves increases significantly)

The mantle Moho and Gutenberg surfaces have solid characteristics, mainly composed of iron, Magnesium is composed of silicate minerals, with the iron and magnesium content gradually increasing from top to bottom.

The Gutenberg surface (a depth of 2,900 kilometers from the earth’s surface, where longitudinal waves slow down and transverse waves disappear)

The materials below the Gutenberg surface in the earth’s core may be in a state of extremely high temperature and high pressure of iron and nickel. It can be divided into an inner core and an outer core; the outer core material is in a liquid or molten state, and the inner core is in a solid state.

The scope of the lithosphere: including the entire crust and the top of the upper mantle (above the asthenosphere), it is composed of rocks.

2.1 Material composition and material cycle of the earth’s crust

1: Composition and cycle of earth’s crust materials

(1) Minerals that make up rocks

Elements: from most to least, oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, etc.

Combined into simple substances or compounds

Minerals: The most basic elements made of rocks Basic unit, the main rock-forming minerals include quartz, mica, feldspar, calcite, etc.

Accumulated magmatic rock: There are two forms of intrusive rock and extrusive rock. Typical intrusive rocks: granite; extrusive rock : Basalt

Rock sedimentary rock: has a layered structure and often contains fossils, including (limestone, shale, sandstone, conglomerate, etc.)

Metamorphic rock: a rock formed by metamorphism , such as marble, quartzite, and slate

(2) Cycle of crustal materials

Sedimentary rocks

Metamorphic rocks Magmatic rocks

2.2 Earth's surface morphology

1: Geological effects: According to different energy sources, they are divided into internal forces (earth's internal energy) and external forces (mainly solar energy)

Internal forces: crustal movement , magmatic activity, metamorphism, earthquakes, etc.

External force effects: weathering, erosion, transportation, sedimentation, consolidation diagenesis, debris flows, landslides, and landslides are also external force effects.

Two: Internal forces and surface morphology

1 Basic arguments of the plate tectonics theory:

(1) The global lithosphere is not a whole and can be divided into six parts. Large basic sectors (name and distribution).

(2) The plates are in constant motion, the interior of the plates is relatively stable, and the crust at the junction of the plates is active, with many volcanoes and earthquakes.

(3) Plate rupture often forms rift valleys or oceans, such as the East African Rift Valley and the Atlantic Ocean; plate collisions and compression often form trenches and orogenic belts. When oceans and continental plates collide, formations Trench-island arcs or trench-coast mountains, huge folded mountains formed when continents collide with continental plates.

Boundary type area junction plate

Growth boundary

(Plate splitting) East African Rift Valley African plate interior

Red Sea Indian Ocean -Africa

Atlantic Asia-Europe, Africa-America

Iceland (belonging to the Atlantic Ridge) Asia-Europe-America

Destroyed Border

( Plate collision) Himalayas India-Eurasia

Alps, Mediterranean Africa-Eurasia

Western Pacific Trench-Island Arc Chain Pacific-Eurasia

Down Base Mountains Pacific Ocean - Americas

Andes Mountains Antarctica - Americas

2 Geological Structures and Structural Landforms

(1) Geological Structures: Crustal deformation caused by crustal movement , displacement. (Deformation is a fold, displacement is a fault)

(2) Common geological structures and structural landforms

Folded rock formations are uneroded surface forms

( General conditions) Terrain inversion phenomenon

(Anticlines form valleys, synclines form mountains) Relationship with human production

Anticline rock layers arch upward

The center is old, The tops of the mountain anticlines on both wings are under tension and are often eroded into valley oil and gas storage structures

Build tunnels

The syncline rock layers bend downward

The center is new, The two wings become valley synclines when squeezed and are not easily eroded. Instead, they become mountains to store groundwater

The rock blocks on both sides of the fault are dislocated along the fault surface: Huashan, Lushan, Taishan, Emeishan, etc.; graben: Weihe River Plains, Fen River Valley, Turpan Basin, East African Rift Valley, etc. Faults encountered during engineering construction must be reinforced or avoided

Part 3: Volcanoes, seismic activities and surface morphology

Volcanoes and earthquakes are strong forms of release of the earth’s internal energy and are also specific manifestations of internal forces. , volcanic eruptions often form volcanic cones, craters, etc.; when earthquakes occur, the earth's crust will fracture and move.

IV. External forces and surface morphology

1 Forms of external forces: including weathering, erosion and transportation, sedimentation, consolidation and diagenesis

2 External forces and Landform

Erosion and Deposition

The action of flowing water washes away the surface of the earth, deepening and widening the valley, forming crisscross ravines. The flowing water erodes the landform and sediment accumulates to form piedmont alluvial fans. Alluvial plains in the middle and lower reaches of rivers, Estuary delta

Wind-eroded valleys, wind-eroded depressions, wind-eroded mushrooms, Yadan landforms and other wind-sand accumulations form sand dunes, sand ridges, loess accumulation on the edge of the desert, etc.

2.3 Atmospheric Environment

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1. Vertical stratification of the atmosphere

1) The composition of the lower atmosphere: dry air (nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, ozone, etc.), water vapor and solid impurities (necessary for forming clouds and causing rain) Conditions)

2): Vertical stratification of the atmosphere

The impact of high temperature and atmospheric motion on human activities

Ionospheric reflection in the upper atmosphere 2000-3000 kilometers Radio waves

Stratosphere 50-55 kilometers rises with increasing altitude. Horizontal movement ozone absorbs ultraviolet rays and heats up; conducive to high-altitude flight

Troposphere low latitude thickness: 17-18 kilometers , mid-latitude: 10-12 kilometers, high latitude thin: 8-9 kilometers, decreasing with increasing altitude. Convection weather phenomena are complex and changeable, and are most closely related to humans.

2. Heating of the Tropospheric Atmosphere Process

1. Weakening effect on solar radiation

Absorption: Selective, water vapor and carbon dioxide absorb infrared rays, ozone absorbs ultraviolet rays, and absorbs less visible light

< p>Reflection: non-selective. The more clouds and dust there are, the stronger the reflection. For example, it is cloudy and the temperature is not too high during the day.

Scattering effect: It is selective, and violet light with shorter wavelength is easily scattered. For example, a clear sky is blue, etc.

2 Thermal insulation effect on the ground: ① The ground absorbs short-wave solar radiation and heats up, producing long-wave radiation on the ground ② CO2 and water vapor in the atmosphere strongly absorb the long-wave radiation from the ground and increases temperature ③ Atmospheric inverse radiation affects ground heat Compensate and act as insulation.

3 The main factors that affect the amount of ground radiation (how much solar radiation is obtained): latitude factors, the different sizes of the sun's altitude angle, resulting in the ground's heated area and the length of the solar radiation's journey through the atmosphere, are the main factors that affect , at the same time, its size is affected by underlying surface factors (reflectivity) and meteorological factors.

3. Global Atmospheric Circulation

(1) Thermodynamic circulation: The air circulation formed due to uneven cold and heat on the ground is the simplest form of atmospheric movement.

The uneven cold and heat between the ground is the fundamental cause of atmospheric movement, and the horizontal air pressure difference is the direct cause of the horizontal movement of the atmosphere

(2) Horizontal movement of the atmosphere—wind

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Upper-altitude wind: Under the action of the horizontal pressure gradient force and the geostrophic deflection force, the wind direction is parallel to the isobars

Wind direction (rightward in the northern hemisphere, leftward in the southern hemisphere)

Near-surface wind: Affected by friction, the wind direction crosses the isobars diagonally and points toward low air pressure.

Horizontal pressure gradient force: perpendicular to the isobars, pointing to low pressure, the driving force for horizontal movement of the atmosphere

Geostrophic deflection force: perpendicular to the wind direction (the northern hemisphere is on the right side of the wind direction, the southern hemisphere is on the right side of the wind direction) left), it only changes the wind direction but does not affect the wind speed.

Friction: Opposite to the wind direction, it not only reduces the wind speed but also changes the wind direction (the greater the friction, the greater the angle between the wind direction and the isobars)

Wind force (wind speed) : The denser the isobars, the greater the wind (force) speed

(3) Distribution of global pressure zones and wind belts

The seven pressure zones and six wind belts Name and location, pay attention to the wind direction of each wind zone, and the cause of the pressure zone (thermal or dynamic reasons).

(4) The movement of air pressure and wind belts: The air pressure and wind belts move with the movement of the direct point of the sun. For the northern hemisphere, they generally move northward in summer and are more northerly; in winter they move southerly and more northerly. South.

4. The influence of the distribution of sea and land on atmospheric circulation

Due to the difference in thermal properties between sea and land, the continuous distribution of pressure belts and wind belts is destroyed, causing the pressure belts in the Northern Hemisphere to be distributed in a block-like manner. : Around July, the subtropical high pressure belt in the Northern Hemisphere is cut off by the hot low pressure on the continent (Asia low pressure), and only remains in the ocean (Hawaiian high pressure); around January, the subpolar low pressure belt in the Northern Hemisphere is cut off by the cold high pressure on the continent (Asia low pressure) High pressure) and remains only in the ocean (Aleutian low pressure).

(5) Monsoon circulation (most typical in eastern and southern Asia)

Region East Asia (East Asian monsoon) South Asia, Southeast Asia and southwest my country (South Asian monsoon)

Climate type Temperate monsoon climate Subtropical monsoon climate Tropical monsoon climate

The main causes are differences in thermal properties between sea and land. Seasonal movement of pressure zones and wind belts

Wind winter

To summer northwest monsoon (source Place: Mongolia, Siberia) Northeast monsoon (origin: Asian continent)

Southeast monsoon (origin: Pacific) Southwest monsoon (origin: Indian Ocean)

Five: Common weather System

(1) Frontal system - cold front and warm front

Cold front warm front

Concept Cold air mass actively moves towards warm air mass Warm air mass actively moves towards cold air mass

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Before the weather transits, a single air mass controls, the weather is clear, a single air mass controls, the low temperature is clear

During the transit, it will be cloudy, rainy, snowy, windy, cooling and continuous precipitation

After the transit The temperature drops, the air pressure rises, the weather gets better, the temperature rises, the air pressure drops, and the sky clears after the rain

Distribution of precipitation Precipitation generally appears behind the front and precipitation only appears in front of the front

Weather Examples include heavy rains in northern summer, cold waves in winter and spring, and sandstorms

(2) Low pressure (cyclone), high pressure (anticyclone) systems and weather (taking the northern hemisphere as an example)

Cyclone anticyclone Cyclone

Low pressure (pressure is low in the center and high on the surrounding sides) High pressure (pressure is high on the center and low on the surrounding sides)

Horizontal movement converges toward the center (inverse direction in the north and smooth in the south) Center Diverging in all directions (north to south and reverse)

Vertical movement rising and sinking

The weather is often cloudy and rainy, the weather is sunny and dry

An example of typhoon in the Yangtze River Basin Drought is imminent, and the weather in the north is "clear and refreshing"

(3) Fronts always appear at low-pressure troughs. For frontal cyclones, there is generally a warm front on the east side and a cold front on the west side.

2.4 Water cycle and ocean currents

1: Water cycle: The process of continuous movement of water in nature through various links in the four major circles.

Energy source: solar energy and gravity energy

Type: including inter-sea circulation, inland circulation, and sea internal circulation

Main links: including evaporation, water vapor Transport, precipitation, infiltration, runoff (surface and underground runoff), etc.

Significance: ① Connect the four major circles, conduct energy exchange and material migration between them, and shape the surface morphology ② Transform various water bodies into each other to maintain the dynamic balance of global water ③ Renew terrestrial water resources.

Human influence on the water cycle: mainly affects surface runoff and small-scale evaporation and precipitation. Building reservoirs, cross-basin water transfer and artificial rainfall are common forms.

Two: Ocean Currents

1 Distribution of Ocean Currents

Northern Hemisphere: Rotate clockwise, warm currents along the east coast of the continent

Southern Hemisphere: Rotate counterclockwise The west coast of the continent is a cold current

In the mid- and high-latitude sea areas of the Northern Hemisphere, the subpolar circulation: counterclockwise rotation. The east coast of the continent is a cold current

The west coast of the continent is a warm current

The monsoon currents in the North Indian Ocean: flow from west to east in summer, clockwise; in winter, flow from east to west, counterclockwise

Westerly drift: circumnavigating Antarctica from west to east

2 Impact of ocean currents on the geographical environment

Warm current: increasing temperature and humidity. At the same latitude, sea areas where warm currents pass through have higher temperatures and more precipitation. The temperate maritime climate in Western Europe directly benefits from the North Atlantic Warm Current. The Murmansk seaport in Russia

The year-round non-freezing climate is related to the North Atlantic Warm Current

Cold current: cooling and dehumidification . At the same latitude, the sea area where the cold current passes has lower temperatures and less precipitation. The coastal cold current played a certain role in the formation of desert environments on the west coast of Australia and the Pacific coast of Peru

Fisheries formed at the intersection of cold and warm currents: Hokkaido fisheries, Newfoundland fisheries, and North Sea fisheries

Marine life

Fishing grounds formed by upwelling: Peruvian fishing grounds

Marine environmental pollution: It is conducive to the spread of pollutants and speeds up purification, but it also expands the scope of pollution

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Navigation: Smooth winds and currents can increase sailing speed and save fuel

3.1 Changes in physical geographical factors and environmental changes

1 History of biological evolution: the emergence of the earth (4.6 billion years before)→chemical evolution→the emergence of life (about 3 billion years ago)→biological evolution

(from low-level to high-level, simple to complex). The photosynthesis of green plants changes the properties of the atmosphere (anaerobic environment → aerobic environment). Stages of biological development (see table on page 67 of the textbook)

2 Biological extinction: The end of the Paleozoic Era and the end of the Mesozoic Era are the two most important periods of global mass extinction of organisms. Cause: Environmental changes, catastrophic events.

3 Human evolution and environment: Human beings are products of the natural geographical environment, and at the same time they can consciously adapt to and transform nature. With the development of human civilization, especially since the Industrial Revolution, human activities have had an increasing impact on the natural environment.

Three major global environmental problems: the enhancement of the greenhouse effect, leading to global warming; the destruction of the ozone layer; and the problem of acid rain.

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