Jews hated him, and every time they mentioned him, they cursed "he was crushed to dust."

In 2008, the British Museum held an exhibition entitled "Hadrian: Empire and Conflict", which unexpectedly became a cultural event of that year. The propaganda copy of the exhibition said that the first thing Hadrian did after he ascended the throne was to "order the Roman army to withdraw from Iraq." Of course, there was no so-called "Iraq" in the 2nd century, but it was a typical practice of European culture in the 20th century to put Hadrian in a modern coat. Marguerite Yourcenar, a French writer, did just that when he wrote the novel Memoirs of Hadrian in the mid-20th century-turning him into an existentialist pioneer.

We have met and will meet Hadrian's works many times. He removed the colossus of Nero and built Venus and the Roman Temple in the square. He competed with Trajan's royal architect Apollo Dorus for architectural technology; He also built the Pantheon, one of the ancient landmark buildings, in the land of God of War. His own tomb is near the Vatican, and now it is the castle of the holy angel. In order to piece together a more complete image, we need to review his life.

At present, detailed information about Hadrian is extremely limited. His only complete biography is found in the Chronicle of the Roman Emperor, which was written late and very unreliable. For a long time, people thought it had four authors, but now researchers tend to think that a series of biographies of "military emperors" and tyrants from Hadrian to the end of the 3rd century were actually written by one person. He may have used four pseudonyms to impress readers more, or later generations may have given him more identities out of thin air. Cassius Dio also described Hadrian's rule. Unfortunately, only a simplified version of his works has survived from the Byzantine period. It seems that Hadrian did write an autobiography (the author of Chronicle of the Roman Emperor mentioned it many times), but unfortunately it has been lost in the long river of history.

Hadrian was born in Tarica, a Spanish colonial city established during the Punic War. There is also historical data that Hadrian was born in Rome, which is probably a fabrication. Roman colonists often intermarried with local nobles, and Hadrian's ancestors included some Spaniards, or rather Celts (they were the main settlers in Iberia at that time). Hadrian received a good education, but throughout his life, his Latin pronunciation was not Roman accent.

At the age of ten, Hadrian's parents died, and he took refuge in a distant relative, Trajan, the future emperor of the Iraqi Tariq, and received education and entered his official career under the protection of the latter. Since then, Hadrian has never returned to his hometown. He quickly climbed the traditional Roman career ladder and took up military and (to some extent) elected civilian posts-honest elections are unimaginable for an emperor's disciples. 1 17 years, Trajan died in Chilia after a long illness, and he did not designate an heir. This detail and his subsequent handling of major competitors became a controversy during Hadrian's reign. Trajan's widow, Plotina, produced a document signed by Trajan, saying that he adopted Hadrian as his adopted son, which almost automatically meant that Hadrian would inherit his power after Trajan's death. Writers in the classical era insisted that Hadrian's victory stemmed from a court conspiracy: Hadrian was Plotina's lover, and the document was forged after Trajan's death, when a courtier pretended to be his voice and dictated the document (this plot was later quoted by Dante and later by Puccini in the one-act play Jenny Schicci). Modern historians believe that considering Hadrian's resume, he is a reasonable heir, but his succession is not accidental (succession is a very complicated and headache problem in the history of the whole Roman Empire). Some writers of the elder class suggested that Trajan had hoped to return power to the Senate and the Roman people-this is actually a fantasy suitable for Hollywood.

After solving the potential competitors, Hadrian turned his attention to foreign policy. In fact, the first thing he did was to refuse to defend the newly conquered eastern provinces, Mesopotamia (later called "Iraq") and Armenia. It is said that he practiced what the old Cato said and advocated the freedom of the newly conquered Macedonians because Rome could not protect them.

Hadrian's foreign policy is a combination of diplomatic conquest and the threat of force. He never waged an expansionist war-the territory of the Roman Empire shrank for the first time in centuries. In order to reach a peace agreement, he personally came forward or negotiated with neighboring countries through envoys, and once concluded a peace treaty with the most dangerous opponent, the Rest Empire. At the same time, the legion was always in a state of readiness. Hadrian never wanted to reduce the size of the army-on the contrary, he constantly monitored the number and combat readiness of the legion.

What do soldiers do when there is no war to fight? They go to build. Construction projects include the commander's residence, schools and border defense projects. During Hadrian's period, the work of surveying the Roman border and building fortifications was carried out on a large scale. In many European regions (such as the forests of Germany and Romania, the banks of the Rhine and Danube), the ruins of barracks, checkpoints and watchtowers are the only traces left by Roman civilization, but the most famous side wall was built by Hadrian in Britain.

This fortification is now called Hadrian Great Wall, and its original Latin name has never been known.

In 2003, some treasure hunters found a glazed bronze pot in Stamford with an inscription on the bottom, listing the names of four fortresses in the western section of Hadrian's Great Wall. This inscription has been found before, but the name given by "The Wasteland Pan in Stamford County" may be the name of the whole Great Wall: Vallum Aelium (the camp wall of Eliou), and its origin can only be understood by comparing the full name of the emperor: Publi Uus, Eliou, Trajan, Hadrian Augustus.

The construction of the side wall is completely in line with Hadrian's main military principle for the province: stop conquering and consolidate the border. As a military project, Hadrian's Great Wall is not very effective, but its military utility is not its main goal. Mainly to announce to barbarians and Romans where "PaxRomana" will start and how much resources the Roman Empire will invest to protect it if necessary. Antonius, Hadrian's successor, crossed the Great Wall and built a new side wall, the Great Wall of Antonius, further north-today's Scotland. However, the territory soon became untenable, and the Roman garrison retreated to Hadrian's border.

Hadrian's Great Wall spans northern England, east to the North Sea and west to the Irish Sea. It does not coincide with the border between England and Scotland, but it is always in England, and the western section is less than one kilometer away from the border. The side walls have experienced the baptism of bad weather, human activities and time, and there are still many well-preserved stone walls and fortress relics in the middle section, especially in Northumberland. There is a planned trail next to this section of the Great Wall, and many tourists walk along it in summer. As early as 1987, Hadrian's Great Wall was listed in the World Heritage List, but today it has not been enclosed for protection, so people can have a rare opportunity to walk with a section of the Great Wall of ancient Rome.

1973, Windlanda wooden slips were found in Hadrian's Great Wall, which was an exciting discovery and one of the most important discoveries in ancient Roman literature.

In Hadrian's time, almost the only area where war was active was Palestine. At first, Hadrian had a good relationship with Jews; Later, the emperor decided to rename Jerusalem Bitolli, built the Temple of Jupiter on the site of the destroyed Solomon Temple, and banned circumcision, which triggered a riot. Jews didn't want to repeat the mistakes of the last war 60 years ago, so they spent a long time planning riots. The leader of the uprising was Simeon Barr Corkba, who called himself the Messiah. The Romans initially underestimated the scale of the riots. When the situation became very serious, Hadrian recalled one of his best commanders from England and mobilized the whole imperial army to go to Palestine. The war lasted for several years and both sides suffered heavy losses. When Hadrian reported the progress of the war to the Senate, he didn't even use the old saying, "I'm fine with the legion."

In the end, the Balkoba uprising was stifled in a pool of blood. According to ancient documents, the Romans slaughtered nearly 600,000 Jews and leveled 50 cities and 1000 villages. Jews were expelled from Jerusalem and forbidden to go near their holy city. Hadrian also tried to destroy Jewish religion, which he believed was the root of riots and wars. Thus, a long Torah was solemnly burned on the Temple Mount, which is now decorated with statues of Jupiter and Hadrian. He banned the study of the law and the Jewish calendar and renamed the Jewish province Syria-Palestine province. Jews began to wander around the world. In Jewish custom, when Hadrian's name is mentioned, it is always followed by a curse: "May he be crushed to ashes."

Hadrian wants people to think they are intellectuals. At that time, the attitude of Roman society towards what was later called science and engineering was very contradictory: on the one hand, it was unthinkable that there were no engineers and managers to govern such an empire; On the other hand, people still strongly believe that only war and agriculture are the noblest occupations, although this is no longer the case. As for intellectual work (such as medicine and education), it is mainly for the residents in the eastern part of the empire. They are collectively called "Greeks" regardless of color and customs. Therefore, a Roman intellectual must be a Greek lover, and Hadrian is no exception. Some even alluded to him as "Graeculus" (Little Greece).

Hadrian eagerly pursues all kinds of knowledge and expects to surpass the recognized masters in all fields. He plays musical instruments, sings, studies mathematics, draws pictures and writes poems. Apollodorus's story shows that Hadrian is not outstanding in all fields, but after all, few people dare to point this out like this famous architect. At a dinner party, the emperor criticized a word from the philosopher Fevorenus, and the other party immediately accepted it. Later, a friend accused Favorinus of servility, and the philosopher replied, "How could the man who commanded 30 legions not be the smartest man?"

The thirst for knowledge also drives Hadrian to travel frequently. He hopes to witness with his own eyes what he reads in the book. Of course, any trip at that time was very troublesome, and more importantly, it was extremely long. Under normal circumstances, the imperial messenger who can change horses at each post station can ride no more than 100 km a day, and the emperor and his entourage will naturally walk much slower. This means that in a few months or even years, Rome will be in charge of the emperor's cronies. Hadrian's power was not greatly challenged during his travels, which strongly refuted the negative comments made by biographers on his rule.

Hadrian toured the vast imperial territory, tried the most trivial cases, handled the most humble grievances and visited places of interest. In Sicily, he climbed Mount Etna and watched the sunrise. In Attica, he attended the mysterious ceremony of Ulysses and forbidden the guards to carry weapons.

During a visit to the province of Bitinia (now northern Turkey), Hadrian met a Greek boy named Antinous and took him with him. The boy is handsome and Hadrian is full of passion (the author of Chronicle of the Emperor of Rome kindly advises readers, "Please judge for yourself"). Antinous stayed in court for several years, and then drowned in the Nile on a voyage (to Egypt) for unknown reasons. According to some historical data, he was sacrificed as a sacrifice in an ancient ceremony, or he volunteered to help the emperor reverse his bad luck. Anyway, Hadrian was very sad. He built a city in Egypt and named it Antipolis. Napoleon's army scientists discovered the ruins of temples and streets in the city, but today, there are no ruins in the old site near the village of El Sheikh Ibada. Hadrian also ordered the deification of Antinous, an honor that only members of the royal family could enjoy.

Hadrian's last few years were not happy. His health has deteriorated. In order to avoid the ignorance he experienced when he succeeded to the throne, he appointed an heir before he died. Some old court officials who had hoped to succeed to the throne were dissatisfied. As he grew older, Hadrian became more and more suspicious. He executed all disgruntled old ministers for treason. One of the courtiers, an old man named Seville Annous, cursed before he died, hoping Hadrian would die. His wish came true: the emperor tried to commit suicide several times, but he was stopped. Finally, in 138, Hadrian died "in the hatred of all", not in his beloved Tybalt's detached palace (now Tivoli), but in Baya detached palace (now Bakuli) near Naples. He was buried in the property that once belonged to Cicero and later transferred to a newly built mausoleum.

Hadrian wrote a poem calling for his dying soul before he died. Its form and spirit are so "not classical" that it is not liked by ancient writers, but praised by modern poets-Byron once translated it into English, and there are more than 40 English versions since17th century.

Ah! Lovely distant soul, the companion and guest of this mud body! Which unknown country will you fly to? There is no longer the laughter of the past, just pale, cold and naked.

This abstract is selected from

Biography of Rome

Victor Masukin [Russia]

Translated by Chen Lei

Rome, the birthplace of western civilization. Goethe once said, "When you see Rome, you see everything." Rome is known as the largest "open-air history museum" in the world, with ancient Greek, Baroque and Gothic architecture ... Reading Roman architecture, the beauty of incomplete art connects the development history of ancient and modern Rome.

Two thousand years away, a few meters of soil, looking at ancient Rome from a distance, hazy and psychedelic. Victor Jin Song removed these obstacles. Through the face of Italy today, he can see the initial transpiration of life in this land around A.D., showing all the cruelty and greatness, luxury and complexity.

This book follows Jin Song's love for the "eternal city" and visits Goethe, Byron, Nikolai Nikolai Gogol, Dickens and Mark? Twain, the master's Rome, is either profound in thought or vivid in image. This is not a simple city guide, beyond the buildings and scenery you can see. The city has been full of legends since it was built in the mythical era. The legend of God, the duel of soldiers, the desolation of war, the glory of power, the heyday of the Renaissance, conflicts coexist.

Related good books

This book is the first biography of Emperor Hadrian translated and introduced by China. As one of the "five wise emperors" of Rome, he brought relative peace to the chaotic and war-torn empire, and brought a golden age and unprecedented prosperity to the Roman economy and society.

Internally, he eased the relationship with the Senate and formed a more benign interaction with it; At the same time, he advocated reform, patrolling the border, training, compiling codes, improving people's livelihood and revitalizing the economy. Externally, change Rome's foreign expansion policy, build Hadrian's long wall, and ease relations with neighboring countries. This ruler with great military and political wisdom is also a versatile emperor, who has made great achievements in the fields of literature, art and mathematics. He loved and admired Greek culture, which made Greek art occupy a prominent position in Roman life and had a far-reaching influence on later generations.

However, during Hadrian's reign, he twice excluded dissidents and killed elders and meritorious people; He brutally suppressed the Jewish uprising, and the Jews were displaced, which led to the Jewish problem that lasted for two thousand years. These also made him more criticized.