Which boss knows unclean people?

There is a reference to impure people in "The Spectrum of Evil Soldiers", but it is not detailed. I want to know more about the history of ancient Persia.

Abstract: China's history books record that Persian "unclean people" specialize in "dumping bodies in the mountains". This paper investigates the funeral history of Zoroastrianism, and holds that "abandoning the body on the mountain" reflects the unique funeral custom of Zoroastrianism in Persia, which is mainly followed by priests and lower class people. In Zoroastrianism, priests, coffin bearers, corpse washers and corpse bearers all participate in the funeral ceremony, and only the corpse bearers are engaged in extremely dangerous occupations in the religious sense. The article thinks that "unclean people" are full-time resin carriers (nasā-sālār). According to the teachings and customs of this religion, the occupation of "unclean people" is to defeat evil. China's historical records are called "unclean people" because of misunderstandings between insiders and outsiders, and between insiders and outsiders because of different positions.

Keywords: unclean people; Ancient Persia; Zoroastrianism; Sasan

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The records of "impure people" in ancient Persia are mainly found in Shu Wei, Zhou Shu and northern history. [1] Shu Wei (Volume 120) Download: "Most of the deceased were buried in the deep mountains and dressed in January. There are countless people who live outside the city and only know about funerals. If you enter the city, ring the bell to say goodbye. " [1] (page 2272) The three editions are basically the same, and the reasons have been discussed by predecessors. [2] (page 67) Three histories were compiled from the Northern Qi Dynasty to the early Tang Dynasty, which is similar to the late Sassanian Dynasty (AD 224-65 1). Because the emergence and development of customs has its historical continuity, it can only be said that the burial customs reflected in the above historical materials will not be later than the late Sassanian Dynasty.

Japanese scholars did not specifically research the "impure man" when restoring this historical material, [3](p. 100) was involved by domestic scholars specializing in the cultural history of the Tang Dynasty, the history of foreign religions, the history of ancient Iran and other fields. For example, when discussing the funeral custom of the nine surname Hu in Tang Dynasty, Mr. Cai Hongsheng pointed out that he was a funeral professional who was responsible for abandoning the body to feed the dog and collecting bones for burial, that is, the Persian "unclean person" recorded in China's classics; [4](pp.25-26) When discussing the religious attribute of the "yellow pit" in Taiyuan recorded in the Book of New and Old Tang Dynasty, it also reiterated that the funeral commissioner of Kangguo College was equivalent to the "unclean person" in Persia. [5] (page 246) Mr. Lin discussed the highest state of Zoroastrianism-barris slave (bare? Num) pointed out that the purification ceremony is mainly used for believers who contact dead bodies and dispose of remains, especially professionals, and quoted Persian "unclean people" recorded in Biography of Shu Wei and Biography of the History of the Northern Regions, saying that this kind of person who specializes in disposing of dead bodies is the object of the slave purification ceremony in barris. [6] (page 64) The History of Zoroastrianism, co-authored by Gong Fangzhen and Yan Kejia, pointed out that "ordinary people can't touch the body, and the body can only be transported by porters who specialize in their duties. Such professionals are called' unclean people'" and quoted the above-mentioned Shu Wei's words. [7] (page 8, page 367) Mr. Li Blacksmith compared it with Chandra in ancient India when researching the caste system in ancient Iran. In addition to pointing out that the "unclean people" contained in Wei Shu are devoted to Zoroastrianism, he even thinks that the unclean people are the four major castes in Iran, with a small number, extremely low social status and extremely miserable life. [8] (Page 60-665438 +0)

The definition of "unclean person" by the above scholars is mostly mentioned incidentally when discussing other issues, which is limited by the theme and length of the article and has not been discussed; At the same time, there are still many ambiguities due to the brevity of literature records. For example, whether an unclean person refers to undertaker in Zoroastrianism in general, or only refers to a person who specially carries corpses, and how to define the social status of an "unclean person". This paper tries to put forward my own opinions on these vague points in order to teach families.

Second, "Dumping the corpse on the mountain" and Zoroastrianism in Persia.

Although scholars associate "impure man" with Zoroastrianism in ancient Persia, there is no special argument. It is necessary for us to analyze the relevant historical events first. According to textual research, "Persia" in China's historical records is different from "Persia" in South China Sea. Even Persian in the western regions refers to different areas with the passage of time. But there is no doubt that Persia, where the "unclean people" discussed in this paper are located, is ancient Iran with the Iranian plateau as its core. [9](p, 89) As mentioned above, no later than the late Sassanian Dynasty.

The only basis to prove that "impure people" have Zoroastrianism attributes is the burial custom of "abandoning corpses in the mountains". According to archaeological findings, Iranians were buried in the late Bronze Age, and this burial custom remained popular until after their migration, about 1000 BC. [10] (p.113) Later, they gradually exposed the body, but the exact time is still uncertain. According to textual research, the residents in Central Asia and East Iran accepted the burial custom of "dumping corpses in the mountains" at the earliest, while the Persians living in West Iran accepted this burial custom later [10] (P.113). Persian literature on Zoroastrianism burial custom seems to date back to the 5th century BC. Herodotus, an ancient Greek writer, recorded: "It is said that the bodies of Persians were torn by dogs or birds before being buried. There is no doubt that the monks of Margaux have this custom because they practice it openly. " [1 1] (page 22) When analyzing this historical material, Mr. Lin Wushu clearly pointed out that "although we know that Zoroastrianism was widely popular in Persia during Achaemenia, according to Herodotus' account cited above, the burial method of Margot monks was not widely accepted by Persians. Although the kings vigorously promoted Zoroastrianism, their bodies did not follow the habit of Zoroastrianism and let birds peck at dogs. " [6](p.87) With Alexander's eastward expedition, under the impact of the Hellenistic wave, it is even more difficult for the burial custom of Magog to spread throughout Persia. In Sassanbos era, the rulers promoted religion through administrative power. "Even Persians who have no habit of celestial burial, under such severe punishment, have to follow the teaching method and switch to celestial burial, and gradually become accustomed to it. [6](p.88) Strappo, a Greek writer in the 1 th century, pointed out that the royal family also exposed the bodies: "They not only recognized the prayers of ancient Persia and built shrines, but also strictly followed Zoroastrianism and abandoned the bodies of the royal family for the sake of vultures and dogs, which was not implemented in the Achemeni dynasty." [12](p.84) However, according to archaeological data, although most of the monarchs of the Persian Empire believed in Zoroastrianism, not all of them practiced celestial burial, and even during the Sassanian period when this religion prevailed, the situation did not change. Following the tradition of the ancient Iranian royal family and nobles, the monarchs of Ahh Megna dynasty painted themselves with incense and put them in giant tombs to show their "desire to ascend to heaven and be reborn in the afterlife, which is the exclusive right of the aristocratic class." [10] (p.325) For example, Cyrus I (640-600 BC), the founding monarch did not expose his body according to the orthodox ceremony, but carefully built a mausoleum so that the incense body could not contact with living things, thus observing Zoroastrianism. [13](p.52) Later Parthians and Sassanians also adhered to the inherent traditions. They colored the king's body and put it in a stone grave. [13] (p.121) From this point of view, in the era when Zoroastrianism was prevalent, the royal family did not need to expose and abandon their bodies in order to maintain their aristocratic status without violating their teachings.

As mentioned above, by the time of Sassanbos, the rulers promoted this religion through administrative power. During Shapley's reign in 309-380 A.D., the classic Avesta Sutra of this religion was compiled, among which the Bodhi Sutra, chapter 3, sections 35-39, legally stipulated the execution of celestial burial. [14](pp.3 1-32) According to the existing materials, it is impossible to determine the compilation date of Exorcism Book, but the scripture shows that it was "compiled in the Parthian period, and some contents are even older." [15] (p.1159) It can be concluded that this burial custom existed at least in the late Parthian dynasty, which was revived by Zoroastrianism, and it was quite popular in Sassanian period.

Although Zoroastrianism is the only religion in Persia, Judaism, Christianity, Buddhism and Manichaeism are also popular to varying degrees. [15] (pp.819-1024) However, "leaving the body in the mountains" is a Zoroastrian burial custom, which is barbaric and unacceptable to other religions. Take Christianity as an example. Although Persian Zoroastrians "exposed the bodies to dogs and birds", Persians who converted to Christianity ignored the strict laws prohibiting burial and buried the bodies underground. Yazdegerd III I, who came to power in 399 AD, was famous for his tolerance for Christians. He tolerated Christians burying the dead and was respected by them. However, according to Zoroastrianism, burial polluted good land, so Yazdegerd III I became a sinner of Zoroastrianism. In the later period of Yazdegerd III's rule, he turned to take severe measures against Christians. Yazdegerd III's son Vahram V (42 1-39) inherited his father's religious enthusiasm. "At the request of the chief priests, Mihl Shahpour, who was cursed, dragged out the body buried in his father's time and exposed it to the sun; This behavior lasted for five years. " [ 13](p. 12 1)

Although there are many religions in Persia, Sassanian dynasty did provide for celestial burial in law. Of course, pagans may not insist on consistency, and pagans may not abide by consistency. It is recorded in the history books of China that "the dead often abandon their bodies in the mountains", which shows that not all people practice celestial burial. In fact, even Zoroastrianism, the burial customs of the royal family, priests and ordinary believers are not exactly the same. From the above analysis, we can be sure that "burying corpse mountain" is a unique burial custom of Zoroastrianism, which is mainly followed by priests and lower people. Therefore, there should be no doubt that the "unclean person" who specializes in this kind of burial custom has the attribute of Zoroastrianism.

Third, the professional nature of "unclean people"

Zoroastrianism's regulations and practices on funeral highlight the doctrine of the struggle between good and evil. According to religion, death is created by the evil god Ahriman, and everything is unclean after death; Among them, the upright man's body is the dirtiest, because the upright man concentrates many beautiful things created by Olmazda, and the demons must go all out to defeat him with death. Moreover, even after the soul leaves the body, evil will stay around the body for a while, so the pollution will continue to spread. [16] (p.110) "Zoroastrianism advocates the retribution of good and evil, which will inevitably recognize soul reincarnation and doomsday judgment in theory and logic. They believe that after a person's death, his soul will still stay on the deceased (near the head) for three days, recalling and examining his life's thoughts and behaviors ... When the undertaker prayed before dawn on the fourth day after his death, his soul began to ascend to heaven. " [10] (p.121,p.328) If this is the case, the disposal of the corpse is a complicated religious act, and full-time personnel must be responsible for it.

It is generally believed that after the death of Zoroastrians, the "corpse removal" ceremony is carried out in three periods. For the first time, if the weather is bad or too late, don't immediately transport the body to the disposal site, but put it in a pit or a specially set house. In the second stage, the body will be transported to a special place to be exposed to the sun and let birds and animals peck at it. This is an ancient burial custom in Iran before Islamization. The final stage of collecting the body is to dispose of the bones. [17](pp. 143-44) The Exorcism Book, Chapter 6, Section 44, specifies the location of the disposal of the corpse through the way that the prophet Zoroaster and the supreme good god Ahumazda asked and answered each other:

Q: Where should we put the body?

A: Put it high so that birds and animals that feed on animal carcasses can easily find them. [14] (page 72-73)

Although the meaning of this record is vague, it implies that the place where the body was exposed is not man-made, and reveals the reason for the book "Abandoning the Body on the Mountain" in Historical Records of our country. So, who will be responsible for lifting the body? Due to the lack of literature and the difficulty in textual research, this problem may be solved according to the field investigation of modern Zoroastrian villages by scholars.

1963-4, Professor Mary Boyce, an authoritative Iranian scholar in Britain, made a detailed investigation on the existing Zoroastrian village of Sharifabad in Iran, leaving precious records. According to her records, when Christians just died, there should be a person responsible for cleaning up the bodies. This man is called paksǔ incarnation, which means "corpse washer". They are usually a man and a woman, who are mainly responsible for cleaning the body with pajow (cow urine), then putting on white cotton-padded clothes and putting the body away. According to Zoroastrianism, in the process of washing the corpse, the corpse is clean, so the "corpse washer" is not polluted; At the same time, they must keep clean when performing their duties. After washing the body, the corpse demon (not Dr. J-NES ā) was polluted. At this time, only those who are ordered to carry out the task can touch the body. [16] (page 23, page 149) When the body was cleaned and put in place, the priest presided over the ceremony and recited the prayers Ahunavad Gah, etc. , and paused in the fourth quarter of chapter 3 1 of Jasner. After the pause, the full-time corpse carrier (Salar) carried the corpse to the iron coffin and tied it with a Kosti. Finally, a funeral was held. Page 329)

At the funeral, the coffin bearer also touched the body. They are mainly selected from the relatives and friends of the deceased and are responsible for transporting the remains to Dakma. In a religious sense, their work is a great achievement. Like the corpse carrier, they are all dressed in white with white cloth on their hands; But the difference is that they don't directly contact the corpse and have less pollution. A simple cleaning ceremony after the funeral will help them to clean up again. [16] (page 150)

The above is the burial custom of Zoroastrianism in modern Iran, and the argument before and after this testimony is of course unconvincing at that time. However, this custom is also very popular among Palcy people in modern India, and the burial customs of the two communities are almost the same except for a few differences. [18] (page 49-82) The reason is not difficult to understand. In the 7th and 9th centuries, Arabs conquered and ruled Persia, forcing pagans to convert to Islam. [19] (p.57) Zoroastrianism in Persia is becoming less and less, becoming a minority. [20](p.243) But some devout believers fled to the west coast of India and developed into a modern Palcy nation. [6](pp. 1 1-22) The Palcy nationality is less influenced by Islamization, and relatively truly retains the ancient orthodoxy; Due to historical and geographical reasons, Sharifabat's persistence in tradition is also deeply rooted. The consistency of burial customs in the two places at least shows that the above contents existed before the Arab conquest, that is, before the middle of the 7th century. In fact, in Professor Mary Boyce's concept, "religious beliefs are embodied in ceremonies, which can only be recognized, and traditions are kept uninterrupted because of the ceremonies handed down from generation to generation." Based on this concept, she advocates "reconstructing ancient beliefs and rituals with Sharifabat's ancient orthodoxy and other documents inside and outside the church." (Page 17)

From the above analysis, it can be seen that the people who participated in the funeral ceremony included priests, coffin bearers, corpse washers and corpse bearers. The priest has a prominent position. The corpse washer finished his work before the corpse demon possessed him, and the coffin bearer did not directly touch the corpse. None of them were seriously polluted by the bodies. Only people who carry corpses engage in extremely dangerous occupations in the religious sense. If they want to be called "unclean people", they are the only ones. The name of the corpse carrier in the exorcism book is Nasu-Ka? A, later developed into nasā-sālār, meaning "the person in charge of the body". [10](p.304) Some scholars pointed out that "the unclean person is the transliteration of the person who knows the loss" [8](p.6 1). Due to the limited information, we dare not speculate. There is a word called "pure man" in China's Buddhist terminology, which refers to "a layman who serves a monk in a temple without becoming a monk"; [22](p. 16) However, people who only know funerals are impure people, which shows that China's secular view is not influenced by Buddhism.

From a doctrinal point of view, the works of "unclean people" are just acts of playing ghosts. In Persian countries where Zoroastrianism is the mainstream religion, it is incomprehensible to classify it as "untouchable".

The difference between "unclean people" and "untouchables"

According to the regulations, after the corpse is placed, the corpse carrier must recite prayers to comfort the soul: "Don't worry, don't be afraid, that's it." For many years, this is the home of your grandparents. Clean and beautiful. " "Oh, Mihr Ized, Slosh (Sro? Ized)、Rush (Ra？ N Ized), pure and upright! We have finished the work, and now we give it to you ... "[16] (pp.151-52) According to Zoroastrianism, after death, the soul must cross the" bridge of judgment ",and the dedicated God will examine the merits and demerits of his life. If he does more good than evil, his soul will be sentenced to heaven. Mikhail, Slosh and Rush performed their duties, with Mikhail in the middle. [23] (pp.164-183) The executioner is responsible for handing over the soul to the gods, and will be tried when he is about to soar three days later; Later, enter Dakma on a specified day, and put the dried bones into the central well (srāda). Scholars in the former Soviet Union mentioned this well when describing Dakma: (Dakma) The top floor is recessed, with steps around it and a well hole in the center; The top of the tower is divided into three layers to place the bodies (outer male bodies, middle female bodies and inner child bodies). People who specialize in this matter will move the body on it, naked, eagle pecking at the body, and throw the bones into the well. [24](p.378) This is the situation after the institutionalization of Dakma. Chapter VI of the Exorcism Sutra stipulates how to dispose of the remains before Islamization:

Q: Where do we put the body of the deceased?

(a): Put it in an urn (uzdāna-) that dogs, foxes and wolves can't reach, and don't let the rain drench it. If possible, these Mazda worshippers put it on rocks or mud; If there are no conditions, let the skeleton stay in place, or bask in the sun and receive light. [25] (Page 72-73)

Uzdā na is casually pronounced as uzdahist in Palawi, meaning ast instead of dān (urn), and the styles of urns are different in different periods. However, according to the Exorcism Book, the poor just left their shriveled bodies on the ground, which was witnessed by foreign travelers in Pattaya and Sassanian times. This custom does not violate Zoroastrianism, because the bones have become clean after exposure and will not pollute the good soil. [10](p.327) This may also be one of the reasons why China's history books recorded the Persian burial custom of "abandoning the body in the mountains" but did not record how to dispose of the body; It is not against the doctrine that ordinary people abandon their bodies and let their bones rot. According to Zoroastrianism, the creator created man on the last day (Fra? Egird) was inspired by the creator when collecting debris. [26](p.3 17) The use of urns to preserve human remains, although it is a manifestation of following the teachings, is not an obligation, and the existing data cannot prove its universality. It is not surprising that the method and place of bone treatment will change with the specific situation. The key is to strictly abide by the net rules of Zoroastrianism, that is, to ensure that bones will not pollute and harm good creation. The "unclean person" who is responsible for carrying corpses and collecting bones shoulders the sacred mission entrusted by religion.

As mentioned earlier, after confirming the possession of the corpse demon, the corpse lifter is the only one who can touch the corpse with his hands, so they are considered to be seriously polluted and unclean. In daily life, they are indeed treated differently. For example, when public ceremonies are held, they often come uninvited; Christians don't turn to them for help when harvesting crops, in case the crops wither. [16] (p.114, p.46) but it must be clear that this impurity is only in the religious sense; Even from the perspective of religious significance, their work has two sides, and their work is also regarded as a high honor (bā arj). In the process of disposing of the corpse, the corpse carrier really thinks that his job is to complete the task of the good god Ormazda, the religious trial of Zoroastrianism (D? distān-i D？ n？ K) is described in detail. [27] (Page 34, Page 44) Before the funeral, they solemnly declared: "We have been authorized by Ormazda, authorized by the kind immortal, and gained the integrity of Srao? One, Slosh, Spitamid authorized by the prophet Zoroaster, and Adu Lebatteux (? Durbād) authorized by the high priest ... "[28] (p.139) Then, they began to hold a ceremony.

According to Zoroastrianism, corpse carriers are seriously polluted (R and people), and the highest realm of purification ceremony is "Kuya Purification" (bara? No name? Wa), at least once every other year. [16] (p.112) In addition, in order to reduce the pollution caused by dead bodies, it is necessary to hold "sagd: d", that is, to drive away the demon "Nash" entangled in the dead bodies and use dogs to look at the bodies. Section 16- 19 in Chapter 8 of Exorcism Scripture stipulates that if you choose a yellow dog with four eyes or a white dog with white ears and bring it to the deceased, you can make the ptomaine fly away from the deceased. [13] (page 97-98) From the moment of death to the moment when the body is officially carried to Dakma, there are usually three "dog-watching" meetings. In the first "Dog Vision", in order to increase the power to resist the devil, it is necessary to light a fire. All these ceremonies are to protect the corpse bearers from religious ceremonies.

However, people often ignore the duality of the profession of "unclean people". Mr. Li Tiejiang compared "impure man" with Chandra, an ancient untouchable class in India, and thought that they had the following similarities: both names were strongly discriminatory. There are strict rules in residential areas. You can only live outside the city and in the village, isolated from other residents. Those who are not pure in religion must show their low status in a clear way when they enter the city. All four occupations are very low and are considered unclean and polluted. [8](p.6 1) According to the Code of Manu, Chandra did live outside the city:

Chandra ... should live outside the village ... people who are loyal to their duties should not associate with them ... they are not allowed to associate in cities or villages at night. They can go to those places when they have something to do during the day, and they can be identified by the signs stipulated by the king. It is a rule that they should carry the bodies of people who have no relatives after death. They will be ordered by the king to execute the death penalty of criminals executed according to law ... [29] (page 252)

But from the above analysis, it can be seen that "unclean people" are regarded as "unclean" because they specialize in funeral, while Chandra's occupation is mainly "butcher". Around the 5th century A.D., when the eminent monks of the Eastern Jin Dynasty went to Tianzhu to seek the Dharma, they witnessed the living conditions of such "butchers": "Chandra (that is, Chandra) was called a wicked man and lived separately from others. If he enters the city, he will bump into a tree to show the difference, while others will avoid it and not appear abrupt. ..... Only tea pickers sell meat ears. " [22](p.54) Compared with the "unclean person" who specializes in funeral in Zoroastrianism, its connotation is quite different. From Chandra's career, it is difficult to see what special religious significance it has, and the "unclean man" who is responsible for dumping the body is the executor of Zoroastrianism's unique burial custom, which is obviously different from it. Moreover, even if Chandra is engaged in funeral, it is only "carrying the bodies of people who have no relatives after death", that is, there is no body of the owner. "Knocking the bell is different" and "knocking the wood is different" only reflect the superficial phenomenon, but can not reveal the nature of their profession. Perhaps because of Chandra's humble position, the ancients called the Persian funeral profession of ringing bells to say goodbye "unclean people." In fact, according to the Manu Code, the situation of Xipo Postscript and Chandra is the same:

Chandra and Spobaga should live outside the village. They can't have complete equipment. All their wealth should only be dogs and donkeys. They want to wear the clothes of the dead; Take phlegm-breaking as the disk; With iron as an ornament, it is often impossible to swim anywhere. People who are loyal to their obligations should not associate with them; They should only exchange what they need and get married. Food given to them by others should be filled with crumbs, and servants should intervene between them. They are not allowed to travel in cities and villages at night. When they have something to do, they can go to those places during the day and identify them by the signs stipulated by the king. They want to carry the bodies of people who have no relatives after death: this is the rule. They will be ordered by the king to execute the death penalty of criminals who execute the death penalty according to law, and get their executioner's clothes, beds and decorations. [29] (p. 252)

The caste system in ancient India is far from what this paper discusses, but it is certain that "impure people" and Chandra cannot be simply equated.

The religious identity of "unclean people" engaged in funeral is contradictory, because their professional relationship is seriously polluted and they enjoy high honor because of fighting the devil. Of course, they may be considered unclean in the secular world, and engaging in corpse collection may not be noble in the eyes of outsiders; Because of their respective positions, it is understandable that outsiders and insiders have different or even diametrically opposite views, especially for foreigners who don't know them. China people's records naturally reflect the value orientation of the Han nationality. China people's concept of funeral was recorded in the eighth volume of Shi Ming in the Han Dynasty, and it was quoted in the official book of Xuanzong in the Tang Dynasty, reflecting the persistence of this concept:

"Book of Rites" said: The buried also hide, and the Tibetans want to be seen. "Zuo Zhuan" said: The son of heaven was buried in July, and the same track was completed. The princes arrived in May, the champions arrived, the doctors arrived in March, the scholars arrived in the same place, and people passed the bright moon. Explain the name: it is better to hide than to bury, and bury it (it will only make it decadent). Don't bury it and don't abandon it. Don't donate your body (to other places). [30] (p. 359)

It can be seen that "corpse dumping" is a kind of wild burial, and it is a barbaric custom in the eyes of China people. This gap in understanding is not uncommon. For example, in Zoroastrianism, group marriage by blood relatives is a virtue and a pious good deed, but Wei Shu describes it as "the ugliest among foreigners". Therefore, it is easy to understand that people who abandon their bodies in the mountains are called "unclean people"

Shu Wei is the most detailed biography of Persia. The communication between Persia and China goes back to ancient times, but people's understanding of Persia is still very vague. Both Tangalt Code and Sassanian Code record people who were expelled from the community for crimes. They have to live outside the city and engage in many menial occupations. [8](p.6 1) It is difficult for outsiders to reach a comprehensive and accurate understanding of it, whether experienced personally or rumored, which may be the reason why Shu Wei recorded it like this. Through the investigation of Zoroastrianism doctrine and funeral custom, we think that "unclean person" is a full-time corpse carrier of Zoroastrianism, and its being called "unclean person" only reflects a concept of China people at that time, and its unique religious connotation must be considered when distinguishing its social attributes. At the same time, when distinguishing the records in Historical Records, we should also give full consideration to the possible misunderstandings between outsiders and China people, and between outsiders and insiders due to different cultural backgrounds.