Kneel for the geography review materials of Shanghai Senior One (China Map Publishing House, China Map Society).

A, the earth in the universe

1. Universe: Time has no beginning and no end, and space has no end.

2. Celestial bodies: ● Concept: the form of matter, including nebulae, planets, meteoroids, comets and some interstellar substances (such as gas and dust) ● Celestial body system: Celestial bodies attract each other and rotate to form a celestial body system.

● Celestial system level: P4

3. The solar system and its members: ● The arrangement of the eight planets: water, gold, earth, fire, wood, earth, heavenly king and Neptune.

Their revolutionary movements have a common feature: the same direction, the same plane and the same circle.

● It can be divided into three categories: (1) terrestrial planets: water, gold, earth and Mars.

(2) Giant planets: Wood and Saturn.

(3) Distant planets: Heavenly King and Neptune.

● Asteroid belt: located between Mars and Jupiter. (Note: Fire and wood can easily burn together and are separated by asteroid belts)

4. The reason why there is life on the earth:

(1) The distance between the sun and the earth is moderate-the appropriate temperature; (2) the appropriate mass and volume-the atmosphere suitable for biological respiration.

(3) Material movement and water in the earth.

Second, the influence of the sun on the earth.

1. Provide energy: ● The main components of the sun are hydrogen and helium.

● Solar radiation radiates in the form of electromagnetic waves. Source: internal nuclear fusion.

● Latitude difference and heat difference: low latitude, strong solar radiation and high biomass; On the contrary.

Solar activity: ● The solar atmosphere is divided into corona (outermost layer), chromosphere and photosphere (the brightest surface of the sun) from outside to inside.

● The main sign of solar activity: sunspot (period 1 1 year).

Flare is also an important symbol and the strongest display of solar activity.

● The solar wind is in the corona layer; Solar storms occur on the surface of the sun.

● Three major impacts of solar activity:

(1) Solar electromagnetic waves disturb the ionosphere and affect radio short-wave communication.

(2) The charged particle flow disturbs the earth's electromagnetic field to produce magnetic storms.

(3) charged particles flow into the atmosphere to produce auroras.

Third, the earth movement:

1. Earth's motion: rotation and revolution P 15 (both directions are from west to east).

2. Earth rotation: ● Rotation center: Earth axis (its northern end always points near Polaris)

● The real rotation period of the earth: sidereal day (23: 56: 4), 360.

Another cycle is: solar day (24 hours), 360 59'

● Rotation direction: The rotation of the earth is counterclockwise from the North Pole and clockwise from the South Pole. P 13

● Angular velocity: except the north and south poles are 0, the angular velocities of other places are15/h.h.p14.

● Linear speed: the maximum is at the equator (1670㎞∕h h), which gradually decreases towards the poles, and the linear speed at the poles is 0.

3. The revolution of the earth:

● Around the center: the sun

● Period: sidereal year:10.365 (real period) 6: 09.

Tropical year: 365 days 5: 48: 46 (solar cycle)

● Orbit of revolution: ellipse.

Perihelion (at the beginning of 65438+ 10, the angular velocity and linear velocity are maximum) and apohelion (at the beginning of July, the angular velocity and linear velocity are minimum).

Note: Summer solstice is near apogee, and winter solstice is near perihelion.

● Equatorial angle (23 26'): ecliptic plane+equatorial plane.

4. The significance of the earth movement:

● Rotation: alternating day and night, local time and geostrophic deflection, changing the shape of the earth (the poles are slightly flat and the equator is slightly bulging).

● Revolution: seasonal changes (the height of the sun changes at noon, the length of day and night changes) and the formation of five zones.

Earth's revolution and rotation: ecliptic angle (23 26').

5. Calculation of the Earth's motion:

● Termination line: perpendicular to the sun ray, and its sun height is 0.

Morning line: from night to day. Faint line: from day to night.

● The global * * * is divided into 24 time zones, each time zone spans longitude 15, and the difference between two adjacent time zones is 1 hour.

Three methods of solving problems: P 17

(1) Find the time zone: time zone serial number = known longitude/15, and the remainder 7.5 integer+1 is the time zone serial number (2) The difference between two time zones: subtraction in the same time zone and addition in different time zones.

(3) "Add East and Subtract West": use "+"to the east of the known point and "-"to the west (early east and late west).

● Datum line: In principle, meridian 180 is the date line, but there are some twists and turns.

One day less from East 12 to West 12; One day from west 12 to east 12. (increasing in the west and retreating in the east)

● North-South motion map of direct solar point: P 16

● Three methods to solve the length of day and night: P 19.

(1) Find the length of day and night in a certain place: when this point is latitude or latitude circle, the part occupied by day is long, and the night is short, and vice versa.

(2) If the day length is 2 x, the sunrise is 12: 00-x and the sunset is12:+x. ..

(3) Spring and Autumn Equinox: Terminator line coincides with meridian, which is equally divided around the world day and night, with sunrise at 6: 00 and sunset at 18: 00.

Note: The breakthrough point in solving the problem is that the equator is equally divided day and night throughout the year, rising at 6: 00 and setting at 18: 00.

● midday sun height: h = 90-∣ (φ λ) ∣.

Note: φ is the required latitude; λ is the latitude of the direct point of the sun; Φ-λ is used when the direct point of the sun and the required position are in the northern hemisphere or the southern hemisphere. When the direct point of the sun and the required ground are in the southern hemisphere and the northern hemisphere respectively, φ+λ:

● The longitude of the direct point of the sun is: 12: 00.

Fourth, the structure of the earth's sphere

1. Research methods: seismic waves.

Seismic waves are divided into longitudinal waves (P) and shear waves (S).

Note: Longitudinal waves can pass through solids, liquids and gases. Shear waves can only pass through solids. Longitudinal waves are faster than shear waves, so when an earthquake occurs on land, you will feel the vibration up and down first, then the vibration from left to right; The ocean only vibrates up and down. )

2. the inner circle of the earth

● It is divided into three layers from outside to inside: crust, mantle and core.

● Moho interface between crust and mantle, Gutenberg interface between mantle and core.

● asthenosphere: the birthplace of earthquakes and magma. Located in the upper part of the upper mantle, but not at the top.

● Lithosphere: including the top of the upper mantle and the crust.

3. Earth's outer space: atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere.

Chapter 2: Earth's atmosphere

1. Atmospheric motion caused by uneven heat and cold

1. Atmospheric heating

● Energy: solar radiation.

● Atmospheric heating process: (the sun heats the earth, the earth heats the atmosphere, and the atmosphere returns to the earth)

2. Thermal cycle (the simplest atmospheric movement): P30

● Sea-land thermal circulation: sea breeze blows during the day and land breeze blows at night. (Because the land heats up faster than the ocean during the day, the land forms a low pressure and the ocean is a high pressure; At night, the land cools faster than the ocean, and the land forms a high pressure, while the ocean is a low pressure. )

3. The horizontal motion of the atmosphere:

● Horizontal pressure gradient force: it is the direct cause of wind formation; The direction is perpendicular to the isobar; From high pressure to low pressure.

● Geostrophic deflection: the northern hemisphere is on the right and the southern hemisphere is on the left.

● Friction: It crosses the isobar diagonally. Affect the wind speed, the greater the friction, the smaller the wind speed; It also affects the angle between the wind direction and the isobar.

● Wind direction: high pressure → low pressure ● Wind power (wind speed): isobars are dense (pressure gradient is large) and wind power (speed) is large.

Second, the pressure zone and the wind zone

1. Form:

● Single cycle: ideal cycle P33

● Three-circle circulation: The circulation P34 at low latitude, middle latitude and high latitude forms seven pressure zones and six wind zones.

Note: Remember the name, location and direction of the wind belt. The pressure zone and the wind zone are symmetrical about the equator.

● Seasonal movement of pressure belt and wind belt: In summer in the northern hemisphere, pressure belt and wind belt move northward.

2. Difference of thermal characteristics between land and sea:

● In winter, the mainland rapidly cools down, forming high pressure and cutting off the sub-polar low pressure zone; In summer, the mainland heats up quickly, forming a low pressure, cutting off the subtropical high pressure area. (cold high pressure, hot low pressure)

● Barometric center (northern hemisphere):

Asia, North Pacific, North Atlantic

monsoon

Asian high in winter

Aleutian low (Mongolia-Siberia high) Iceland low

The northwest monsoon prevails in China and the northeast monsoon prevails in South Asia.

In summer, Asian low (Indian low), Hawaiian high, azores high, southeast monsoon (from the western Pacific subtropical high belt) prevails in China, and south Asia is southwest monsoon (the southeast trade wind in the southern hemisphere crosses the equator in summer and gradually turns to southwest wind to the right under the geostrophic bias).

3. Climate type:

● To describe the climate of a place, it is necessary to describe precipitation and temperature clearly.

●( 1) Under the control of a single pressure belt or wind belt: tropical rain forest climate, temperate maritime climate.

(2) Under the alternate control of two kinds of pressure belts or wind belts: Mediterranean climate and savanna climate.

● More important climate types:

(1) Tropical Rainforest Climate: It is hot and rainy all year round, mainly distributed in Amazon Plain, Malay Archipelago and Congo Basin.

(2) temperate maritime climate: generally, the temperature is higher than 0, and there is neither much nor little precipitation; Distributed in the west coast of temperate continent between 40 and 60 north latitude; Western Europe is the most typical, and the rest are distributed in the northwest coast of North America, southern Chile, southeastern Australia and New Zealand.

(3) Mediterranean climate: hot and dry in summer and mild and humid in winter. It is distributed on the west coast of the mainland between 30 and 40 north latitude, with the Mediterranean region as the most typical, and the rest are distributed in the Pacific coast of California, central Chile, the coastal area of southern Australia and Cape Town in southern Africa.

(4) The climate of China is mainly subtropical monsoon climate (south), temperate monsoon climate (north) and temperate continental climate (northwest) plateau climate (Qinghai-Tibet Plateau).

Third, a common weather system.

1. Front and weather: P4 1 The black triangle is cold, the temperature drops, the rain blows and the wind blows, and the semicircle is warm, forming a continuous precipitation front.

(Attached with this picture. )

Concept: Distribution of precipitation after transit during transit before transit; Examples of the atmosphere.

cold front

cold air mass

Active direction

warm air mass

Control of moving a single air mass,

It's sunny.

Cloudy day,

It's raining,

It's windy,

When the temperature drops and the air pressure rises,

The temperature drops,

It's sunny and rainy.

The summer rainstorm occurred in the north behind the front,

Strong winds in winter and spring,

Cold wave, sandstorm

warm front

warm air mass

Active direction

cold air mass

Control of moving a single air mass,

Low temperature and sunny days continue

Precipitation, fog and rising temperatures,

The air pressure drops,

It's sunny and rainy.

Appear in front

2) Low pressure and high pressure systems-cyclones and anticyclones (taking the northern hemisphere as an example, Figure 2.2 1)

Low pressure (cyclone) and high pressure (anticyclone) weather:

(Attached with this picture. )

atmospheric pressure

Horizontal motion

vertical motion

weather

for instance

hurricane

be lax

(the center is low,

Surrounding height)

Circumferential center convergence

(North to South)

rise

rainy season

typhoon

anticyclone

high atmospheric pressure

(the center is high,

Low around)

The center diverges around.

(North Shun and South Inverse)

water channel

What a sunny day,

Dry weather

Summer drought in the Yangtze River basin,

The weather in the north is "crisp in autumn"

● High pressure ridge: a long and narrow area extending from high pressure. Low pressure trough: a long and narrow area extending from low pressure.

● Cyclone: the central air pressure is low and the surrounding air pressure is high; In the northern hemisphere, it converges counterclockwise,

In the southern hemisphere, it converges clockwise; The airflow rises vertically. (What a rainy day)

● Cyclone prevention: the central air pressure is high and the surrounding air pressure is low; It diverges clockwise in the northern hemisphere,

It diverges counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere; The airflow sinks vertically. (What a sunny day)

● Judgment method: the right hand rules the northern hemisphere, the left hand rules the southern hemisphere, and the thumb direction is consistent with the vertical airflow direction.

●( 1) Typhoon is a special form of cyclone. (2) The main cyclones affecting China are temperate cyclones and tropical cyclones. Affected by extratropical cyclones all year round, tropical cyclones are mainly in summer. (3) The main cyclones affecting China are: warm anticyclones in the Pacific Ocean in summer, such as summer drought in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River; In winter, it is influenced by Mongolian cold high pressure from temperate continent.

Fourth, global climate change:

1. Performance: ● Fact: In the past century, the global climate was characterized by rising temperatures. Since 1860, the temperature has increased by 0.6℃.

● Reasons: population increase, forest reduction, burning of fossil fuels, etc.

2. Possible impacts of temperature rise: (1) sea level rise (2) agricultural production (3) water cycle.

3. Measures: control greenhouse gas emissions, energy-saving technologies, afforestation, etc.

Chapter 3: Water on Earth

First, the water cycle in nature:

1. Water body: ● Existence form: solid, liquid and gas.

● Water body type: ocean water, land water and atmospheric water.

●( 1) Seawater is dominant; (2) Glaciers are the most abundant fresh water resources. But it is not used much.

● Water body mainly used by human beings: fresh water in land water.

● Recharge relationship between rivers and lakes: If the water level of lakes is higher than rivers, lakes will recharge rivers. On the contrary.

2. Water cycle: ● Three types of water cycle: land-sea cycle, land-based cycle and sea-based cycle.

The cycle between land and sea is the most important and complete. Its circulation process: P55

The significance of water cycle:

(1) Promote the renewal of various water bodies and maintain the global water balance.

(2) Adjust interlayer heat transfer.

(3) changing the surface morphology

(4) Promote the migration of chemical elements on the earth's surface.

Second, large-scale seawater movement.

1. Ocean current ● Formation: prevailing wind is the main driving force.

● Type: (1) According to reasons: wind current (main), density current and compensation current.

(2) by nature: warm current and cold current

Warm current: the ocean current flowing from the sea area with high water temperature to the sea area with low water temperature; Generally, it also flows from low latitude to high latitude.

The cold current is just the opposite.

Low distribution law:

(1) winter ocean current distribution: P57 Figure 3.5; The middle and low latitudes in the northern hemisphere are clockwise ocean circulation and the middle and high latitudes are counterclockwise ocean circulation; The middle and low latitudes in the southern hemisphere are counterclockwise.

(2) west wind drift: It is the largest ocean current in high latitudes in the southern hemisphere.

North Indian Ocean Current: Southwest wind prevails in summer, so it is clockwise ocean circulation;

In winter, the northeast wind prevails, which is a counterclockwise ocean circulation.

(3) The North Atlantic Warm Current: the largest warm current. Build an ice-free port in the Arctic Circle.

● Influence of ocean currents:

(1) Impact on climate: promote heat transmission and exchange between high and low latitudes, and balance global heat.

Warm current has the function of increasing temperature and humidifying; Cold current can reduce temperature and humidity.

(2) Impact on the distribution of marine living resources and fishing grounds: for example, the formation of four major fishing grounds.

(Cold current and warm current meet to form: Newfoundland, Hokkaido, Beihai fishing ground. Affected by offshore winds: Peruvian fishing grounds. )

(3) Impact on ocean navigation

(4) Impact on marine pollutants

● El Nino phenomenon: coming from the sea near Peru, the equatorial warm current flows southward, causing the water temperature along the coast of Peru to rise.

Causing floods in Peru and Ecuador; Drought in Australia and Indonesia. P60

Third, rational use of water resources.

1. Abundance and shortage of water: measured by average runoff for many years. Runoff = precipitation-evaporation.

2. Distribution of water resources:

● The continent with the richest water resources: Asia. The continent with the least water resources: Oceania.

The country with the richest water resources: Brazil. China is in sixth place.

● Distribution of water resources in China: more in the north and less in the south, less in the east, with more precipitation in summer and autumn and less precipitation in winter and spring.

3. Water resources and human society: historical development affecting economic activities and water resources utilization.

4. Rational utilization of water resources: ● Water crisis ● Water use measures: open source and reduce expenditure.

Chapter four: the shaping of surface morphology.

First of all, the power to create surface forms:

1. Geological processes include internal and external forces. Among them, internal force is dominant.

2. Internal force:

● Energy: Thermal energy inside the earth.

Manifestations: crustal movement, magmatic activity and metamorphism.

Crustal movement is the main way to shape the surface morphology.

● Impact on the surface morphology: uplift or sag the surface, forming highlands and basins.

Crustal movement:

(1) Horizontal movement: Fold mountains are formed by extrusion, and fault zones are formed by stretching. (mainly horizontal movement)

(2) Vertical movement: formation of rugged terrain and land-sea changes.

3. External force:

● Energy source: solar energy outside the earth.

● Expression form:

(1) Weathering (weathering products remain in place)

(2) Erosion (the product leaves the original place and forms an erosion landform in the original place. Such as ice bucket, tinder, wind erosion column)

(3) Handling function

(4) accumulation

● Influence on surface morphology: flatten the surface.

4. Lithospheric material cycle: P72

Second, the formation of mountains.

1. Lishan:

● Fold: Rock strata are deformed due to the intense compression of crustal movement, and a series of bends are called folds.

Its basic unit is folding.

● Fold

(1) Anticline: The stratum is upward, and the middle stratum is newer than the old wing. Tunnels can be repaired and are also storage places for oil and gas.

(2) Syncline: The stratum is downward, the middle stratum is newer, and the wings are older. (Repairable reservoir)

Note: sometimes the top of anticline is eroded into valley due to tension; Syncline is a syncline mountain, because the trough is strong and erosion-resistant.

2. Fault mountain:

● Fault: The rock mass on both sides of the fault plane has obvious displacement along the profile.

● Reason:

(1) Rock mass rises to form mountains or highlands, such as Huashan, Lushan and Taishan.

(2) The rock mass descends to form valleys or lowlands: Weihe Plain and Fenhe Valley.

3. Volcano:

Structure: It consists of a volcanic cone and a crater.

Crater water is easy to form lakes, such as Tianchi Lake in Changbai Mountain, China (also called Baitoushan Tianchi Lake).

4. The influence of mountains on traffic:

● Affect the mode of transportation: In mountainous areas, roads are usually built before railways are built, mainly considering the requirements of terrain and cost.

● Division of influencing routes: The traffic routes in Bushan area are mainly distributed in mountain basins and river valleys.

Three. fluvial landforms

1. River erosion landform:

● Erosion: It consists of traceable erosion, downward erosion and lateral erosion.

● Erosion landform: river valley.

The cross section of the valley is V-shaped at the beginning, and becomes trough-shaped when it matures.

● Rivers erode concave banks and accumulate convex banks. (Wharf can be built on concave bank, and gold can be found on convex bank)

2. River accumulation landform;

Alluvial plain is a typical landform type, which consists of alluvial plain (piedmont), flood plain (middle and lower reaches) and delta plain (estuary).

3. Influence of river landform on settlement distribution;

Distribution and shape of topographic subsidence

The plains on both sides of the plateau valley are obviously banded.

There are obvious zonal alluvial fans, alluvial fans and flood plains in the piedmont area.

The settlement belt along the river plain and the coastal settlement belt are banded and blocky.

Chapter five: the integrity and difference of natural geographical environment.

First, the integrity of the geographical environment

● Geographical elements: atmosphere, water, rocks, biology, soil, topography, geology, climate, hydrology, etc.

● Ways of geographical environment exchange: water cycle, biological cycle and lithospheric material cycle.

● Concept of geographical environment integrity: The components of natural geographical environment (landform, climate, hydrology, soil, plants and animals) are interrelated and mutually restricted to form a unified whole.

The expression of the integrity of natural geographical environment:

(1) The natural geographical environment has a unified evolution process. (2) Changes in physical and geographical elements will "affect the whole body with one hair".

Second, the differences in geographical environment.

1. Natural belt: ● Formation factors: latitude position and land and sea position.

● Composition: heat, moisture, soil and vegetation.

● Distribution characteristics: it has a certain width and is distributed in strips.

● Main natural areas:

(1) Low latitude: tropical rain forest belt, tropical seasonal rain forest belt, tropical grassland belt and tropical desert belt.

(2) Mid-latitude: subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest belt, subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest belt, temperate deciduous forest belt and temperate grassland belt,

the temperate zone hungriness take

(3) High latitude: sub-frigid coniferous forest belt, frigid tundra zone and polar ice sheet belt.

2. The law of regional differentiation:

Law of regional differences:

(1) The law of regional differentiation from equator to poles: latitude zonality (based on heat)

The natural belt extends from east to west and changes from north to south.

(2) the law of regional differentiation from coastal to inland: longitude zonality (based on moisture)

(3) The law of vertical regional differentiation in mountainous areas: vertical zonality.

The lower the latitude, the higher the altitude, the more vertical zones and the more complete the vertical zones.

Non-zonal differentiation law: influenced by land and sea distribution, topographic relief and ocean current.