Political and Military Game between China Families in the Thirty Years' War?

The Thirty Years' War was a decisive period that decided that the comprehensive development level of northwest European countries surpassed that of southern European Mediterranean countries, the forerunner of the great maritime era, and it was very worth studying.

Many countries took part in this 30-year war. Now let's talk about the political and military actions of some big countries:

Clues of the Habsburg family in Austria to the Holy Roman Empire;

Habsburg emperor Charles V (1500- 1558) was the first and only * * emperor in the Spanish kingdom. By the beginning of17th century, the throne of Shenluo Empire belonged to his nephew Matthias, who was an ardent Catholic and determined to curb the expansion of Protestantism in the empire. He saw that among the seven main German voters, three (Brandenburg, Saxony and Pfalcz) belonged to Protestant countries. (Since 12 century, the position of the Holy Roman Empire in Germany has been elected by several electors), and the key vote is the King of Bohemia. The Bohemian king at that time was himself, which can be said to be foolproof, but he had no son. In the future, both the emperor and the king of Bohemia will be elected. If the king elected by Bohemia is a Protestant, then the balance of power of the seven emperors will definitely fall to the Protestant side, and it is likely that a Protestant emperor will be elected. This is something Matthias will never tolerate. Matthias set out to make his cousin Ferdinand king of Bohemia, so that Ferdinand could seize the throne of Bohemia first and then macias.

Of course, the Protestants in Bohemia are dissatisfied with such a fanatical Catholic as their king. They formed an army to openly confront the emperor, which became the fuse of the 30-year war. Matthias died in 16 19, and Ferdinand (Ferdinand II) succeeded to the throne of the Holy Roman Empire. Anti-government Protestants in Bohemia refused to recognize the emperor as king, and presented the Czech crown to the Protestant paladin Elector Roger Federer. Most German Protestant vassals stood on the Czech side, while Emperor Ferdinand was supported by the Catholic vassal alliance headed by maximilian, Duke of Bavaria. The Thirty Years' War officially broke out.

The emperor's cousin, the Spanish Kingdom, supported Ferdinand II the most.

Spain's clue:

Before the Thirty Years' War 100 years ago, Spain had just completed the process of reconquering for centuries. At that time, national sentiment was high and religious fanaticism was spreading. On the European continent, there is no struggle between Protestants and old religions. On the contrary, it is the most enthusiastic supporter of Catholic orthodoxy. In Europe, the king of Spain not only owned Spain, but also owned land in many places in Italy and the Netherlands (today's Netherlands and Belgium). 16 18 At the beginning of the Thirty Years' War, shortly after the death of Philip II, the first generation of Spanish hero, the succeeding Spanish kings (Philip III and Philip IV), as always, fully supported the emperor and the old German church alliance, not only providing economic assistance, but also lending soldiers to the emperor.

However, Spain also faced its own thorny problems at that time. They hope to re-annex the Netherlands, which is already in a state of armistice, and the latter also hopes to seize more land in the western Netherlands. Results 162 1 After the war between the two countries resumed, Spain was unable to send troops from the Netherlands to help the German emperor fight.

Clues to England:

Queen Elizabeth I died in 1603. During the Thirty Years' War, Britain was in the late James I and early Charles I. As a Protestant country, Britain certainly supported the German Protestant vassal state. Duke Buckingham, who holds real power, did not send troops directly to support the Protestant Union, but indirectly supported the Protestant Union by cracking down on Spanish forces in the Netherlands and providing some financial assistance. 1628 After the assassination of the Duke of Buckingham, Charles I wanted to increase military spending and taxes, and the contradiction with Congress intensified, leading to the British revolution. Therefore, in the middle and late period of the Thirty Years' War, Britain was actually fighting a parallel civil war, without considering the great melee in continental Europe.

France's clue:

Henry IV (1553- 16 10) of the Navarra Bourbon family entered the war as a Protestant leader in Huguenot, southern France, and eventually became the last person to laugh. He founded the Bourbon Dynasty in France. Before Henry IV ascended the throne, he converted to Catholicism again as a compromise to take care of the fact that most French people were Catholics. However, after he ascended the throne, he promulgated the "edict of Nantes", which contributed to the reconciliation between the old religion and Protestantism. Sadly, the wizard monarch was later stabbed to death. At the beginning of the Thirty Years' War, it was his son Louis XIII who came to power, and the political affairs of Louis XIII dynasty were in the hands of Cardinal Li Sailiu. In his book Great Diplomacy, Dr. Kissinger spoke highly of Li Sailiu's political talent. Li Sailiu's actions in the Thirty Years' War supported Protestantism, greatly improved France's geopolitical position in Europe, and took the first step to finally break the Habsburg siege of France.

In view of the fact that France only intervened in the war later, and the Habsburg family of Holy Rome can only control its own territory, Austria, and there is no standing army, so in general, the 30-year War is a large-scale war between small Germanic countries (including Scandinavian countries)!

Bohemia-Pfalcz Stage (162 1- 1625).

While the elector of Pfalcz was happily going to the Czech Republic to accept the throne granted by Bohemian Protestants, the Spanish general Marquis Spinola, who was stationed in the west of the Netherlands, assembled 2W elite soldiers and dealt a powerful blow to Pfalcz (near the border with Belgium and just in the west of Germany). At the same time, another important force of the emperor, Bavaria, had a standing army, accepted the generous conditions offered by the emperor (after defeating Pfalcz, the defeated candidate's status and most of the land were transferred to Bavaria), and sent a 5W-man army led by the famous general and veteran Tili, who was next to Warren Stein, to launch the Battle of Baishan in the Czech Republic in 162 1 year. Till 1625, Tilly and Spinola's Catholic army (especially the former) always separated the three Protestant armies (except the Czech Protestant army, the anhalt army and the mercenaries led by Mansfield) through military maneuvers, and finally divided them into two groups. When the Elector of Pfalcz fled to the Netherlands, the Bavarian Principality received the benefits promised by the emperor, while the Spanish army returned to Belgium to continue fighting the Dutch.

Danish stage (1625- 1629).

First of all, it is worth mentioning that two important Protestant principalities in northeast Germany-Saxony and Brandenburg (the country at this time is far from a bloody country, but more like a fishbone army) did not necessarily actively participate in the Protestant war against Catholicism, but always wanted to hold their own small territory and take the so-called "third way". In contrast, two Scandinavian countries-Denmark and Sweden-expressed their willingness to send troops to Britain and France and demanded the price of supporting military spending. Denmark intervened earlier than Sweden, on the one hand, because Denmark's bid was relatively low, and the king of Denmark was also the Duke of Holstein in Germany, even if he was one of Germany's vassals, he was famous. On the other hand, Sweden is still busy with the war against Poland and has not actively intervened in German affairs. So in 1625, King Christine IV of Denmark led 50,000 Danish troops into Germany. Thus began the Danish stage of the Thirty Years' War.

At this time, wallenstein, the top general of the old religion, began to rise.

This man is a Czech who supports Catholicism. In his early years, he raised a large number of mercenaries with considerable wealth through marriage. As early as 16 17, he won the "trust" of the Habsburg family for supporting the emperor's war against Venice, Italy. He also took part in the war against Protestants in his hometown in the early1620s, and later confiscated a large number of Protestant aristocrats' real estate and obtained the patent right of coinage granted by the emperor. When Denmark attacked on a large scale, the emperor urgently needed an army of his own. Warren Stein lost no time in proposing to the emperor to form an army of 50,000 people, and the recruitment expenses were entirely borne by him. In exchange, Warren Stein enjoys full power in the appointment of officers and the power to break machines in battle. Where does the maintenance cost of such an army come from? The method put forward by Warren Stein is to "support wars by fighting" (meaning to encourage soldiers to plunder).

In fact, Warren Stein has his own set of ideas. He is far more ambitious than the emperor's idea of "eradicating Protestantism". For him, the division and war of Protestantism or old religion is meaningless, which is the root of the division and pain of the German nation. Germany should establish a unified centralization and rule like Britain and France. And this unification should be done by the emperor himself in the name of the emperor. The royal family is just a banner, the essence of which is the unity of the country. They monopolize the power and rely on the emperor to be a vassal. Because of this, many primitive Protestant soldiers came under his banner, and soon he could form an army of nearly 4W people.

There are three forces on the Protestant side, 1, and the Danish army led by the Danish king himself is in a state of confrontation with the Bavarian army in Tilly, northwest Germany; 2. The Protestant mercenaries led by Mansfield, who was defeated by Tilly last time, regrouped in the Netherlands and marched into the northeast of Germany; In the far east of the empire, the Grand Duke of Transylvania, close to Turkey, wanted to seize the throne of the Hungarian king who was also the emperor.

Warren Stein wisely chose Mansfield as his first opponent. First of all, wallenstein was familiar with Mansfield and fought side by side with them in the Czech Republic and won. Second, Transylvania is actually the buffer state between Austria and Turkey. If we attack with all our might, it may lead to war with Turkey. Moreover, the Archduke of Transylvania himself knows his own strength, has no confidence in the war, and is easily "shocked by the mountains"; Thirdly, on the Danish side, wallenstein clearly knows that Leigh has established a strong enough prestige because of its premise. Although wallenstein was the Commander-in-Chief of the Imperial Army, his position was higher in Bitir. If he cooperated with their Bavarian army against the Danish army in the northwest of Germany, everyone thought it was the credit of Tilly and Bavaria. This is not good for wallenstein and his ideal of reunifying Germany.

As a result, Warren Stein defeated Mansfield in Dessau on the Elbe River with his wily strategy, ruling people first, then ruling people, making decisions first and then acting. Since then, the Grand Duke of Transylvania really has no fighting spirit and signed a peace treaty with the Imperial Army.

Tilly's Bavarian army also received some reinforcements from wallenstein, which defeated the main force of the Danish army and forced it to return to its homeland. After the imperial army chased Mansfield's mercenary remnants to the easternmost part of the empire and forced them to disband, Mansfield himself died in Italy soon after, and wallenstein sent a 7W-man army to jutland. As the commander-in-chief of the imperial army, he took over the command of Tilly's former enemy and sent Tilly and his military forces back to Mü nster-Cologne, euphemistically calling it "warning the Dutch direction". In fact, wallenstein wanted to take the credit for defeating the Danish nemesis and enhance his personal prestige. Denmark is no match for the imperial army at all. Wallenstein occupied the whole Schleswig-Holstein, plus jutland, which is already the whole European continent territory of Denmark, forcing the Danish king to wander in places such as Xilan Island and Fei Ying Island.

Wallenstein was dismissed for the first time.

Catholic princes were very suspicious of Warren Stein, and they levied taxes on the vassal States passing by during the war, even burning and looting, which made the princes complain bitterly. Wallenstein himself has a fatal weakness. He has always been arrogant to those princes and nobles who have lived a luxurious life for generations. The real problem is "unification and independence". The vassals realized that in order to maintain their independence, they must start with Warren Stein and pull out their own thorn in the side. At the meeting of German emperors and bannermen in 1630, all bannermen, regardless of the old Protestantism, unanimously demanded that the emperor replace Warren Stein, and even threatened that if the emperor continued to employ Warren Stein, the German Protestant Union and the Catholic Union would join forces against the emperor with the support of France.

The emperor himself no longer trusted wallenstein. The latter often contacted Brandenburg, the Protestant princes of Saxony and Denmark without authorization, giving them excellent peace conditions, especially Denmark. "The Danish king can recover all the territories before the war for almost nothing." He is far-sighted. Although Denmark and Switzerland are both Protestant countries, they have always been feuds. It is only a matter of time before Sweden gets involved in the war. Denmark will definitely give Sweden a stab in the back if it maintains a certain strength. The German governor in northeast China didn't want to fight against the emperor for a long time. Giving them some space can also prevent them from getting so close to Sweden in the future. The emperor's idea was to "eradicate Protestantism", which was inconsistent with Wallenstein's idea. Finally, he agreed to the latter's resignation.

Gustav II, the young King of Sweden

16 1 1 year, Gustav became king of Sweden at the age of 17. It was a young and energetic court, and his prime minister and close friend, Steen, was only 28 years old. 16 15, Gustav declared war on Russia at the age of 2/kloc-0. In a very short time, Sweden seized all the territories around the Baltic Sea in one fell swoop, and Russia became a landlocked country from then on. It was not until 100 years later, in the era of Tsar Peter the Great, that it gained access to the Baltic Sea.

After the success of the war with Russia, Sweden had five years of peace. Gustav seized this time to rectify the Swedish army, not only training but also carrying out many military system reforms. He took the lead in implementing the national conscription system, unifying military uniforms and strengthening military discipline, so that the Swedish army avoided the situation that a large number of dependents were driven by "fighting to support the war" and greatly improved the mobility of the army. Tactically, he inherited the reform of the Spanish phalanx by Prince Morris of the Netherlands, and Gustav Adolphus completed the transformation from phalanx corps to musketeer queue volley; 1629 The First Independent Artillery Regiment was established under the command of 27-year-old Thorstensson (who later became the Marshal and Commander-in-Chief of the Swedish Legion), with four artillery companies, a field engineering company and a special blasting company. And focus on improving the mobility of artillery, so that it can fight with infantry and cavalry.

Through these reforms, Sweden, as a small country with a small population, has a strong individual combat effectiveness. Long before being involved in the German war, the Swedish army defeated the Polish army with the support of the old church countries in Poland.

The Swedish stage of the Thirty Years' War.

1630, with the support of French finance, Gustav Adolphus led 1.3W Swedish troops to land in Germany. At first, the political form was not as optimistic as he imagined. Brandenburg and Saxony, the two major electorates of Protestantism, refused to give him any support, and even refused the Swiss army to cross the border. The Protestant rulers in northern Germany hoped to find a "middle way" between the emperor of the old religion and the Protestant aggressor king of Sweden. In view of this situation, Gustav adopted a slow and steady strategy. With the support of the Dutch navy, Sweden occupied Szczecin along the Baltic Sea, and then gradually returned to the Oder River and went deep into Germany. And accept reinforcements from Sweden, but also recruit mercenaries of other nationalities to strengthen their strength. In this stage of the war, Gustav didn't do much portable benefits, but he was satisfied with stationing troops in the Elbe River basin, watching Gustav's progress in the lower reaches of the Oder River basin, and preventing Sweden from further expanding to the Elbe River and the Upper Reaches of the Oder River.

Only at the end of 1630, a small-scale battle broke out between the Swedish army and the imperial army, and the Swedish army won. This is of little significance in the course of the war. However, one thing happened. 1630, the residents of magdeburg, a free city in the middle reaches of the Elbe River, had a Protestant uprising and were besieged by the imperial army led by Tirion. 163 1 At the beginning of the war, Gustav tried to help magdeburg, which had been besieged by Tilly's army for several months, but Brandenburg and Saxony, two major Protestant electors, still refused Sweden. As a result, before the Swedish army came to the rescue, magdeburg was captured by the imperial army in May 163 1, and was destroyed by fire and massacre, killing 3W residents. This atrocity is shocking. Tilly, who has always been cautious, was branded as "the butcher of magdeburg" from now on, which also led to Tilly's failure to establish herself in uninhabited magdeburg. In order to get supplies, the imperial army was forced to attack the originally neutral Saxony. In this way, Saxony and Brandenburg naturally could not remain neutral, but fell to the Swedish side.

163 1 September, the main force of the imperial army and the Swedish-Saxon Coalition forces launched a fierce battle near Leipzig. As a result, the tactical and disciplinary advantages of the Swedish army made up for the weaknesses of the Saxon army, and as a result, they won a great victory, and Tilly had to retreat to the deep areas of Germany. At this time, there are two roads in front of Gustav Adolphus: attacking the rich areas along the Rhine River near France to the west, or attacking Vienna, the imperial stronghold, to the south. French Prime Minister Li Sailiu and Marshal Horn led by Gustav supported the latter, but it was not adopted by Gustav. Today's historians are quite controversial about his practice. First of all, he violated an important principle of military science today-strategic pursuit. Secondly, if he goes straight to Vienna, he can lead the peace talks and put forward any peace conditions he wants. At this time, it is not impossible to establish a German Protestant Union under his leadership as the basis of German reunification.

However, there are many viewpoints supporting Gustav Adolphus's choice: first, and most importantly, Vienna was not the real center of gravity of the empire at that time, and occupation did not necessarily end the war. The second point is also very important. German Protestant governors still regard Sweden as a foreign invader in their bones, especially the attitudes of Brandenburg and Saxony, two electors, are not clear. Gustav's success in going deep into Yugoslavia and attacking Vienna is certainly good. In case of any setbacks, the princes behind him will betray one after another, and the rear road will be broken, so the Swedish army will become a hanging army. Third, although Marshal Horn's suggestion was sincere, Li Sailiu made the same suggestion for another purpose. Li Sailiu is a shrewd politician. He is behind the 30-year truce between Sweden and Poland. His fundamental purpose is to use the Swedish military power to attack the Habsburg dynasty and serve the interests of France. But Li Sailiu didn't expect Gustav's military success to be so rapid and thorough. He didn't want Gustav to enter the Rhine region of West Germany, because France itself had ambitions for the Rhine region. That's why Li Sailiu encouraged Gustav to attack Vienna. Fourth, Gustav actually saw through Li Sailiu's intentions. As far as its own interests are concerned, marching into the rich States of West Germany that have not been destroyed by the war can replenish supplies, rest troops and expand its influence in Germany. At that time, France was still blocked in the alsace-lorraine area on the German-French border, far from the Rhine. Even if it doesn't want to, it can't interfere with Sweden's actions. Fifth, Gustav can also attack the Bavarian elector in southwest Germany. Pulling out the leader of the Catholic League destroyed the pillars of the emperor and the old church.

In this way, the Saxon army and the Swedish army were divided into two roads. Saxon troops fought eastward in the Czech Republic, invaded the territory of the emperor's Bohemian kingdom, and restored Protestant forces there. Swedish troops marched westward into Thuringia and Mainz in the Rhine and Mainz river basins. 1632 in April, the Swedish army and Tilly's revised imperial army troops fought again near the Reko River. The imperial army originally had a strong fortress, but the Swedish army gave full play to their advantages as engineers and artillery, successfully crossed the Leike River, and the imperial army was defeated again. Tilly, who was over 70 years old, was also seriously injured and died.

After Tilly's death, Emperor Habsburg had to invite Warren Stein out of the mountain again to be the commander-in-chief of the imperial army.

Warren Stein made an unusual move as soon as he took office. He knows that his military strength, even if he can surpass Gustav in quantity, is far from his opponent in quality. But he also knows as well as Gustav himself that Sweden's strategic weakness lies in its allies and retreat. Therefore, after Warren Stein became commander-in-chief, he didn't confront Gustav, ignored the emperor's urging and the Bavarian elector's call for help. Instead, he recruited troops in his hometown of Bohemia, then attacked his old subordinate Anim and invaded the Saxon army in Bohemia. As a result, the latter was quickly defeated and withdrew from Bohemia. At the same time, wallenstein constantly encouraged Anim to quit the alliance with Sweden.

Warren Stein's actions hit Gustav where it hurts, but Gustav is by no means an amateur. He is unwilling to give up the strategic initiative he has gained and dance to the beat of Warren Stein. Gustav ignored Saxony, with the help of the whole army, but invaded Bavaria with all his strength, with the purpose of forcing wallenstein to give up Saxony and seek assistance. However, Warren Steiner was unmoved. Instead, he sought to meet the Bavarian field army led by the Bavarian Duke who defeated Gustav and occupied Saxony. Gustav cannot ignore this serious threat. As soon as he learned that the Duke of Bavaria and Warren Stein were going to join forces, he immediately led some troops and went north day and night in an attempt to separate the two armies before they joined forces. However, Gustav's long-range attack was finally a day late, which failed to stop wallenstein and Bavaria from joining forces in eger. At this time, Gustav had only 65,438+8,000 people, facing wallenstein's 60,000 troops. 1632 In August, Gustav had to retreat to the fortress town of Nuremberg and defend according to the danger. At the same time, he told Prime Minister Oxenstein to lead troops to support.

After Gustav joined the prime minister, there were 50,000 soldiers, while the imperial army had 6W. The two sides kept their own barriers, and the Swedish army could not give full play to its tactical advantage. After the armies of both sides collected the nearby grain and ate it, Warren Stein led the troops back to Saxony to continue the conquest, and Gustav once again marched into Schwaben, hoping to attract Warren Stein's main force to fight a decisive battle. Wallenstein's eyes on Saxony remained unmoved, and Gustav had to turn around and March into Saxony, seeking a decisive battle with wallenstein. Wallenstein and Gustav each called scattered German troops to gather in Saxony, Babenheim's troops were recalled from the northern coast of the Baltic Sea, and Gustav's Saxony allies were also called to move closer to the king of Sweden. Finally, a large-scale battle broke out between the two sides in Luzen near Leipzig on June 1632+0 16. But what they didn't expect was that this battle would also be the end of their brilliant military career!

. In terms of quality, the advantages of the Swedish army are obvious. The advantage of the imperial army was that Babenheim's reinforcements arrived on the battlefield in time, while Gustav's Saxon reinforcements never arrived. Due to the fog, Gustav, the leader, left the cavalry regiment and broke into a large group of imperial soldiers. He was killed! In the imperial army, Babenheim, who had just arrived at the scene with 8000 reinforcements, was also killed.

The death of the Swedish king inspired the Swedish soldiers to fight, and won the final victory with tactical advantages, but they also lost the core of the army-a generation of famous soldiers Gustav Adolf.

Wallenstein resigned for the second time and was finally assassinated.

After Lu Cen's defeat, wallenstein's credit went bankrupt, his invincible reputation was covered with dust, and the army's confidence in him was shaken. Even though Wallenstein was in the army, he couldn't expect so many die-hard confidants to follow him when he retired for the first time. What's more, imperial emperors and governors of all walks of life have always been fearful and suspicious of Warren Stein.

More puzzling than these obvious political realities, it seems that Warren Stein's own energy and intelligence have also dried up with the death of his great opponent Gustav. After the war of Luzen, Warren Stein never fought seriously, but kept on hold, making various political transactions with various German governors and major European countries, especially with Saxony and Sweden. But all his promises were contradictory, and soon all the courts in Europe lost trust in him. Among them is Anim, a Saxon who has a good relationship with him. They all hate his political skills.

But the biggest political mistake Warren Stein made was that he did not firmly grasp the army's retreat from a separatist local force. Instead, he left the army automatically at 1634 and returned to his manor with a group of die-hard cronies to stay in bed behind closed doors. Because without an army, there is no ability of armed self-defense. On February 25th of that year, Emperor Ferdinand II of the Holy Roman Empire sent a group of Scottish and Irish mercenaries to assassinate Warren Stein who had just got out of his hospital bed without any resistance.

France intervened.

1634, Li Sailiu officially declared war on the emperor, and Spain also declared war on France on the emperor's side. The Elector of Saxony, who had teamed up with King Gustav of Sweden, regarded France's declaration of war as an invasion by foreign enemies and turned to the emperor's side. The war was basically divided into two battlefields: the Rhine Valley was the western battlefield, commanded by bernhard, Duke of Weimar, and fought against the imperial and Spanish allied forces. The German hinterland is the eastern front battlefield, and the Swedish army, under the command of Marshal Gustav Banal, fought against the armies of the Empire and Bavarian and Saxon vassal States. Denmark, another Protestant country in northern Europe, finally joined the war to support the emperor against France and Sweden.

The war ended in the fiasco of Holy Rome and Spain, and the Peace of Westphalia was signed in 1848, with the following results:

Reaffirm that the augsburg Peace Treaty of 1555 and the Prague Peace Treaty of 1635 are still valid.

The Habsburg royal family recognized the legal status of Protestantism in the Holy Roman Empire, and the Protestant prince and the Catholic prince had equal status in the Empire.

The vassal States of the Holy Roman Empire can make their own official religions, among which Orthodox Calvinism is recognized as the official religion by the Empire. The vassal state of the Holy Roman Empire has diplomatic autonomy, but it cannot declare war on the emperor and the royal family.

Officially recognize the Netherlands and Switzerland as independent countries.

The Habsburg royal family's outer part of Austria was forced to be ceded to France, Sweden and Protestant princes of some empires;

The French acquired the three parishes of Lorraine, Merlin, Tours and Verdun, and all Alsace regions except Strasbourg.

Sweden acquired the West Pomerania region and two bishops, the city of Wisma and Bremen-Vilden, thus gaining important ports on the south bank of the Baltic Sea and the North Sea.

Prussia won the Bishop of East Pomerania and magdeburg.

Lu satya, the road to Saxony.

The Principality of Pfalcz is divided into two parts:

Catholicism, Shangfapulch and Bavaria merged.

Protestant Lower Pfalcz (Rhineland-Pfalcz) maintained its independence.

The election of the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire shall not be held while the current emperor is alive, lest the emperor interfere and affect the result.

France and Sweden have representative seats in the Parliament of the Holy Roman Empire, and the Duke of Bavaria was elected as an elector.

Major changes beyond the treaties of major belligerents:

Spain: Portugal, which was originally annexed, regained its independence at 1640, and the original Portuguese colony was also lost. Although Portugal is weak, it provides an ideal foothold for British and other countries to invade Spain in the future.

Denmark: The area around Gothenburg was permanently lost in the war with Sweden. Since then, the situation that Sweden is strong and Denmark is weak has continued to this day.

Poland: It was obviously weakened in the war, and its advantage in the late Middle Ages was completely lost, which laid a fatal foreshadowing for the subsequent division.