Hello, my friend, do you have any notes on administration, public policy, contemporary Chinese political system and sociology? Can you give me one?

Administrative management is a management activity that uses state power to manage social affairs. It can also refer to the administrative affairs management of all enterprises and institutions. The administrative management system is an organizational system. It is an important subsystem of social system. With the development of society, the objects of administrative management are increasingly extensive, including economic construction, cultural education, municipal construction, social order, public health and environmental protection. Modern administrative management uses the ideas and methods of system engineering to reduce the expenditure and waste of manpower, material resources, financial resources and time, and improve the effect and efficiency of administrative management.

The meaning of modern management

Broadest sense: refers to the governance, management and operation of all social organizations and groups on related affairs.

administration management

Social activities carried out. Broadly speaking, it refers to the implementation of national political goals, including legislation, administration and justice. Narrow sense: refers to the management of public affairs by state administrative organs, also known as public administration.

Edit the management development of this paragraph.

Administration has existed since the birth of the country, but it didn't begin to form a discipline until the end of 19. It has experienced the following three development periods:

Traditional management period

From the end of 19 to the 1920s. German scholar L von Stein first put forward the word "administration". 1887, American scholar I.W. Wilson published a paper on the study of administration. 1900, American administrative scientist Goodnow put forward the idea of separating government from enterprise. From 65438 to 0926, an American scholar, L.D. White, systematically expounded the main contents of administration, and began to form a system of administration. The purpose of early administration is to study the administrative efficiency of the government and save expenses. Its contents include: advocating the separation of government affairs, realizing the systematization of organization, the programming of working methods, the planning of office affairs, and the standardization of work requirements. In order to achieve a clear responsibility and pursue practical results.

Scientific management period

From the 20th century to the 1950s, due to the continuous introduction of theories and methods such as scientific management and behavioral science, the content of administrative management was constantly updated. According to F.W. Taylor's scientific management theory, many administrative scientists break down goals into several levels of small goals and establish reasonable organizations to achieve each goal. Adopting scientific procedures and working methods will enable all administrative work to be carried out in a planned and step-by-step manner, just like the assembly line of industrial production. The rise of behavioral science urges administrative management to study people's behavior and psychological factors and the relationship between people and their surrounding environment from the perspectives of sociology, psychology and anthropology, and pay attention to stimulating people's positive factors.

System management period

Since the 1950s, there have been many new developments in administration. Many administrative experts use the theories and methods of information theory, cybernetics and operational research that have appeared since the 1940s to study administrative management. At the same time, because there are more and more aspects involved in administrative management and more and more problems need to be considered, it is necessary to study administrative management as a system

Edit the management characteristics of this paragraph.

1. All administrative activities are directly or indirectly related to and based on state power.

2. Administration is an organizational activity to carry out government affairs according to national laws. In the process of implementation, it also actively participates in and influences national legislation and political decision-making, and making policies is an important way of administrative management.

3. Administration not only manages social public affairs, but also performs the political function of class rule.

4, administrative management should pay attention to the effectiveness and efficiency of management. Through planning, organizing, directing, controlling, coordinating, supervising and reforming, it optimizes and realizes the scheduled national tasks and achieves the due social effects.

5. Administration is a specific field of human practical activities to transform society, which has its own objective development law.

Edit the administrative management type of this paragraph.

The main types of administrative management are:

National economic management.

This is the management of social and economic life by state administrative organs. Including industry, agriculture, transportation, finance, commerce and trade, environmental protection and public utility management.

Cultural and educational management.

Including education, science and technology, culture, health, sports and other undertakings.

Military management of national defense.

National defense military management

Including conscription, armed forces construction, military scientific research, national defense engineering construction and other management.

Public security and judicial administration.

Including public security, traffic, fire control, border defense and other management, as well as lawyer affairs, notary affairs, reform-through-labour prison management.

Civil administration.

Including social relief, social welfare, special care and resettlement management.

Foreign affairs management.

Including diplomatic activities, foreign economic and trade, foreign cultural exchanges, international tourism activities and other management.

Edit the management function of this paragraph.

From the administrative management process, there are four basic functions.

Plan. Including making plans, giving instructions, making resolutions and making arrangements.

Organization. Put the established plans and decisions into practice. Organizational activities also include the establishment, adjustment and effective utilization of institutions, the selection, deployment, training and evaluation of personnel.

Coordination. Through policies, decrees and various specific measures, we will constantly improve and adjust various relationships among organizations, personnel and activities. Clear division of labor, close cooperation, step by step, and * * *, to achieve the predetermined goal.

Control. Namely, the function of supervision and inspection. It can be controlled by analyzing statistical data and real-time information, such as personnel, organization and finance.

The significance of editing this administrative research

1. The study of administrative science is conducive to discovering the laws of administrative activities and promoting the socialist superstructure to adapt to the development requirements of the economic base.

2. The study of administration is conducive to training and bringing up administrative talents who meet the requirements of social development.

3. The study of administrative science is helpful to find and overcome the disadvantages existing in current administrative activities, promote administrative reform and establish an administrative system that meets the requirements of modernization.

4. The study of administrative science is conducive to learning and absorbing the research results of administrative science all over the world.

Edit the development trend of administrative management in this paragraph.

The development trend of modern administration can be summarized as follows:

First, the administration is systematic. Administrative management is regarded as a whole system composed of many elements or subsystems that support and restrict each other and have certain functions. An effective administrative management system is to organically combine planning, organization, command, control, coordination and other management activities by setting up reasonable institutions, equipping appropriate personnel and adopting certain procedures and methods. Applying the ideas and methods of systems engineering to organize various administrative activities requires quantitative systematic analysis of administrative activities, establishment of corresponding mathematical models and logical models, and selection of the optimal administrative scheme through analysis and evaluation.

Second, scientific administrative decision. Administrative decision-making is a decision-making activity to perform national administrative functions. Problems that need to be taken action in administrative management practice must rely on administrative decision-making to put forward solutions. Administrative decision-making reflects the will and interests of the country, which is binding not only on the inside of the administrative organization, but also on all relevant enterprises, institutions, institutions and groups within its jurisdiction. Administrative decision-making can be divided into national decision-making, local decision-making and grass-roots decision-making, and can be divided into strategic decision-making, strategic decision-making and tactical decision-making according to the nature of decision-making. In administrative decision-making, in addition to being led by administrative organs at all levels, special decision-making bodies can also be set up, with a group of professionals with extensive scientific knowledge and rich social practice experience, equipped with advanced computers, specializing in decision-making research and policy analysis. The following figure shows the strategic decision-making process of administrative management:

Schematic diagram of administrative strategic decision-making process

The main tasks of the decision support system in the upper right corner of the figure are: to provide rich and intuitive information support for decision makers through hardware systems such as computers, audio-visual equipment, communication equipment and transaction processing equipment; On the other hand, a software system is formed through systems analysis, operational research, forecasting technology, behavioral science and other technologies and methods, which gives full support to decision makers' scientific decision-making methods. Modern administrative decision-making can adopt a variety of decision-making analysis methods and follow scientific decision-making procedures.

Third, the quantification and optimization of administrative means. There are many forecasting techniques, such as Delphi method, trend method, time series method, regression method, smoothing method and elastic coefficient method. Decision-making includes multi-objective decision-making, competitive decision-making, analytic hierarchy process, group decision-making, fuzzy decision-making, random decision-making and so on. Control and Coordination Planned Coordination Technology (PERT) and Critical Path Method (CPM). Analysis and evaluation include system analysis, feasibility study, cost-benefit analysis, sensitivity analysis and risk analysis.

Four. Modernization and automation of administrative affairs. The administrative affairs of an organ are essentially the collection, processing, transmission, storage and updating of information. Establishing computer network, establishing administrative information system and realizing online information processing are the main directions of modernization and automation of agency management.

Edit the administrative coordination function of this paragraph.

The coordination function of administrative management includes two aspects. One is to coordinate the relationship between various departments within the company.

Administrative management reform

The second is to coordinate the non-business relationship between enterprises and other social enterprises, social institutions and government departments. The coordination between administrative management and internal departments is based on the division of labor, implementation and control of the plan. In the process of implementing plan control, the administration department should coordinate the plan execution and implementation progress of all departments to adjust the implementation of the overall plan of the enterprise. At the same time, it is also necessary to mediate the contradictions and conflicts in the daily affairs of various departments in the process of implementing the work plan, so that all departments of the enterprise can unite and coordinate, and maintain the stability and normal operation of the enterprise.

Another coordination task of administrative management is to coordinate the non-business relationship between enterprises and other enterprises, social institutions and government departments. The reason why this relationship is non-business is that the operation of the enterprise can be carried out healthily and stably on the basis of clear division of labor among various departments. The functions and powers of the administrative department cannot go beyond the division of labor within the enterprise. It is very important to clarify this point, so as to prevent the administrative department of the enterprise from interfering in the business, thus avoiding the conflict between the business department and the administrative department and avoiding the chaos of the enterprise's operation. The coordination of non-business relations between enterprises and other enterprises, social institutions and government departments by administrative management is mainly to develop friendly exchanges with relevant social units, ease conflicts and strive for a good living environment for enterprises on the basis of safeguarding the basic rights and interests of enterprises.

What is administration? Starting with Woodrow? Since Wilson founded modern administration, the definition of "administration" has been controversial [1]. In the west, there are mainly differences on the concept of administration: first, the "three powers theory", that is, the connotation of administration is confirmed from the division of labor of state institutions, and only the affairs under the jurisdiction of the government administrative department are administrative. In fact, this view cannot explain the administrative activities of national legislation and judicial organs. Secondly, "dichotomy" means to establish the connotation of administration from the perspective of separation of politics and administration, and holds that administration is the implementation of national will. This view actually avoids the political nature of politics and the political nature of administration. The "function theory" refers to establishing the connotation of administration from the perspective of management function, and holds that all management activities that coordinate people's efforts to achieve a certain goal are administration. In fact, this view summarizes the concept of administration, puts aside the political factors in administrative activities and confuses the boundaries between administration and management. In China, there are also three views: first, administration is the administrative activity of state administrative organs, which refers to government administration in a narrow sense; Secondly, administration is the administrative activity of state organs, which refers to government management in a broad sense; Third, administration refers to administrative activities including government, state organs, enterprises and institutions. I think the above viewpoints and opinions can be established because they are in different scenes and fields. If we compare the definitions of administration by scholars at home and abroad and find out the similarities, we can divide administration into three categories: micro-administration, meso-administration and macro-administration. For micro-administration, meso-administration and macro-administration are the administrative ecology of its operation, and micro-administration ultimately depends on or is subject to the operation of meso-administration and macro-administration. For meso-administration and macro-administration, micro-administration has a great dynamic reaction to them, that is, micro-administration, as a narrow sense of government administration, directly affects meso-administration and macro-administration. In this sense, micro-government management should be given priority. Specifically, administration, literally speaking, is to carry out its political affairs, implement and be responsible for government affairs. Politics and government affairs are divided into right and wrong, size. Major political affairs and government affairs are generally related to state organizations. Therefore, administration is linked with activities organized by the state, especially those organized by the state government. In this regard, the following definition is acceptable: that is, administration is the activity of the state administrative organs to effectively manage social affairs, state affairs and their own internal affairs in accordance with the law in order to realize the national goals and the interests of the ruling class. This definition highlights the connotations of administrative subject (administrative organ), object (the above-mentioned "three tasks"), basis (law) and purpose (target interest), and value (effectiveness). In my opinion, the study of administrative activities should always focus on the following questions: what is politics (governance), who will do it, how to do it, and the final result. These four issues run through the whole process of administrative activities. Among them, the most important and crucial question is what is "politics". The starting point of administrative analysis and research is "politics" rather than "action". If this first problem is not clarified and solved, it will inevitably affect the research and solution of several other problems. But there are many definitions of "politics" or "politics", and its essence is "public" or "* * *" and "positive". The so-called "public" refers to the "public * * * *" nature of political affairs and government affairs implemented and managed by administrative organs, which is beyond and above society as politics and country. It is closely related to the promotion, distribution and adjustment of the overall interests of society and its public power activities. The so-called "righteousness" refers to a kind of "virtue" or "virtue" which is internally related to "public" and "* * *", that is, public * * * can be manifested externally, as Confucius said: "Politicians are also righteous." It is in the sense of explaining Chinese characters that the so-called administration means "justice" and "justice"! It can be seen that stressing politics, fairness and morality is the proper meaning of the topic of "administration". However, the administration associated with the state is concrete, historical and class, and the administrative personnel who execute and take charge of government affairs have the dual attributes of nature and society. In the actual administrative process, class prejudice and selfish desires often appear, distorting the original meaning of administration. The only way is to resort to law. Whether it is "fairness", "right" or "justice", it must be safeguarded by law and law. Therefore, law is the proper meaning of administration. The first concern of law is the universal fairness and justice of society. However, some laws only control certain class prejudices and selfish desires of certain administrators within a certain range of social tolerance. Researchers with a little sense of historical mission and responsibility should not forget to remind people that as long as there are laws related to the state, no law is and cannot really be synonymous with justice and fairness in the substantive sense, because under the limited resources, laws always have the characteristics of being both public and non-public. Regardless of the public nature of law or the non-public nature of law, the law requires that administrative personnel must be upright.

Interviewee: omy gold- Magician Level 512-2116: 56.

1, in a narrow sense, is what we generally recognize. Administration is the activity of the executive organs of state power organs to manage state affairs, social affairs and internal affairs according to law. 2. Administration in a broad sense also includes management activities in other affairs, such as enterprise management. Interviewee: Don't be lonely xcw | Level 2 | 2010-4-11:16.

Administration refers to the interpretation of the specific application of other laws that do not belong to trial, prosecution and legislation and laws and regulations formulated by state administrative organs according to law. In a narrow sense, it refers to all functions of the state except legislation and justice; In a broad sense, it refers to the administrative function outside politics as a decision-making function.

China Administration No.8, 2009

On the exact meaning of "public administration"

Zhang Kangzhi Zhang Tong

(School of Management, China Renmin University, Beijing 100872)

Abstract: In the middle and late 1990s, the word "public administration" became popular in China, and gradually replaced the word "administration" used in China's administrative restoration and reconstruction. However, there is great confusion when using the term "public administration". People even created the so-called public administration in slave society and public administration in feudal society, which is a summary of public administration and inconsistent with historical facts. In fact, public administration is the product of historical development, and it is an administrative management mode that only appeared at the end of 19. As a relatively independent research field, public administration is developed on the basis of the dichotomy between politics and administration established by Wilson, which is enriched by bureaucratic organization theory and scientific management theory. Later, White and others systematically studied public administration, thus making it a relatively complete discipline.

[Keywords:] Administration; Public administration; public administration

[Author Brief Introduction] Zhang Kangzhi, born in 1957, male, Han nationality, native of Tongshan County, Jiangsu Province, professor of China Renmin University, doctoral supervisor. Main research interests: administrative philosophy and culture. Zhang Tong, born in 1989, male, Han nationality, from Guyuan City, Ningxia, is a student of China Renmin University. Main research direction: administrative management theory.

In China, the word "public administration" has been widely used when talking about government-related activities and things. No matter in academic discussion, theoretical research or practical description, this concept will be used to express government-related activities. However, scholars seldom delve into the exact meaning of the word "public administration". In some publications, we can even see expressions such as "public administration in slave society" and "public administration in feudal society". This raises a question for us: Is public administration a governance model that human society has had since ancient times? The answer to this question is obviously related to the basic understanding of the nature and form of public administration, which determines the direction of administrative reform to a certain extent, that is, the reconstruction of public administration.

First, clarify the concept of public administration.

In the early 1980s, when China resumed and rebuilt the discipline of administration, few people used the word "public administration". I used to use the word "administration" at that time. Only when it is necessary to translate this word into English can we translate administrative management into public management. It was not until the late 1990s that China scholars gradually got used to the word "public administration". Why is this happening? Theoretically speaking, China's academic context in the 1980s included the standpoint, viewpoint and method of class analysis to understand and solve problems, while the expression of "public administration", that is, the attribute of "public administration", just blurred the class nature. Therefore, scholars at that time were reluctant to use "public administration" because of their sensitivity to academic context. This is not difficult to find when we read some western documents translated in the 1980s.

In the late 1990s, with the change of academic context, due to the need of academic exchange and dialogue with the West, the growth of literature translation and the increase of scholars who returned to China after their studies, the word "public administration" began to be used by more scholars. However, at the same time, there has also been a problem of conceptual confusion. When the word "public administration" became a buzzword, scholars showed great arbitrariness when using concepts such as "public administration", "administrative management" and "public administration", and even completely ignored the nature of the research object, so the so-called "public administration in slave society" and "public administration in slave society" appeared. If public administration is an administrative model that exists in all historical stages of human society, then the essence of government serving class rule in pre-modern society and even modern society for nearly two centuries has been obliterated, and in what sense our administrative reform today constructs the public content of the government, it has lost its theoretical support. In particular, it is not clear whether the government's public services can be understood as the privileged state of slave society and feudal society.

It is for this reason that we put forward the division of "ruling administration", "management administration" and "service administration" in order to let people grasp the historical characteristics of administration.

We believe that the ruling administration is an administrative activity under the condition that politics and administration have not been separated. It directly serves the realization of class rule and ruling interests and is the administrative management of the ruling class. Management administration is based on the distinction between politics and administration, and its political function is implicit in social management activities, which are carried out under the principle of instrumental rationality to realize professionalism and impersonality. It pursues formal rationality, technical experts are the main body of administrative activities, and the efficiency goal is achieved through scientific and technological improvement. As for the political content and ethical value of administration, it has been established before the beginning of the administrative process, which belongs to things outside the administrative process and is not something that should be paid attention to in administrative activities. In academic circles, this situation of management administration is also called "value neutrality", that is, it is independent of or above all parties, interest groups and the public, and is not interfered by political disputes. It is this so-called "value neutrality" that determines the publicity of administration. It should be pointed out that "openness" is a concept, which refers to the substantive content of administration. However, in the sense of publicity, the formal administration of management administration is only a formal publicity, not a substantive publicity. Therefore, for the ruling authorities, there is no open problem. The so-called publicity comes into being after the management administration, and the publicity of management administration is a mere formality, which is bound to be abandoned in people's pursuit of publicity.

What can replace management administration will be service administration, which will surpass any pursuit of publicity in form. It conducts administrative activities under the guidance of service spirit, serves others through its own management, and creates a situation of cooperative governance through service. All social governance subjects cooperate through self-management and mutual service in the process of social governance. In this case, service and cooperation are universal behavior patterns, and management is subordinate to service and cooperation, which is the necessary means of service and cooperation. Although in the traditional sense, management still has the characteristics of formal publicity to a certain extent because it is above the individuality of the management object and pursues formal unity, service and cooperation have effectively corrected the formal publicity in the management sense. Although the core content of service and cooperation is not the pursuit of publicity, it is actually endowed with administrative publicity when correcting the publicity of management forms and promoting the realization of the interests of the whole society as much as possible, which is a substantive publicity. Therefore, service administration is a complete form of public administration and an administration with rich public connotation.

In other words, the concept of "public administration" is concrete, especially the administrative model produced in the process of modernization. In the pre-modern historical stage, there was administration, but that kind of administration was not public administration. In ancient China, it was directly called "administration". Today, if we talk about the administrative model of this period, in the sense of administrative activities, as to when public administration came into being, it is hard to say that public administration came into being at a certain point, because it has experienced a long evolution process in modern society. However, it can be seen from the narrative of Wilson's article "Research on Public Administration" that Wilson tends to go to Europe to find the birthplace of public administration. Wilson believes that management is "an exotic science", "first valued in Europe" and "developed by professors in France and Germany". [1] In his view, Stein of Prussia's Administration began to study administrative management from the perspective of administrative law. Because Stan blurs the boundary between politics and administration, it can be regarded as a hazy public administration consciousness. The administrative practice at that time did reflect some characteristics of public administration. For example, frederick the great of Prussia, on the basis of inheriting his father's footsteps, began to establish public office in Prussia and made it a very serious institution serving the public. Encouraged by Stein, Frederick III designed many organizations with wider contents, which pushed this work forward and laid a solid foundation and concrete form for the later Prussian administrative work. However, to a great extent, Britain and the United States have become the de facto cradles of public administration. The Second Order of Privy Council promulgated by the United Kingdom in 1870 and the Civil Service Reform Act of pendleton passed by the United States in 1883 should be regarded as landmark events in the official appearance of public administration. Americans have made fundamental contributions to the study of public administration, and Wilson's administrative research is only the first landmark achievement of public administration research.

Public administration is an administrative model produced in modern society. It is human beings who have entered the modern society and there has been social differentiation. The unified society has been divided into different fields and different parts, and the government and society have also become two opposing fields in the process of differentiation. When the government and society are in a state of integration, the government only represents the interests of a certain class or stratum in this society. Only when the government is relatively independent of the society can it override the society and become a public existence, and its dynamic form (namely administration) can become public administration. In the agricultural society before modern times, the government (if the main body of management activities in that society, namely the imperial court and its institutions, is called the government) and society are an integrated chaotic whole. The government lives in the society and appears as a part of it. It is a kind of rule and power in itself. Even if we know it in an independent sense, we can see the nature of its weapons and tools as the highest representatives of the ruling class, such as emperors and kings. This kind of ruling government only applies to class analysis. In modern society, although the existence of class and social stratum is still an indisputable social reality, the division of social fields blurs the boundaries between class and social stratum, and the government's management demands dilute the class and social stratum characteristics of the management objects. In particular, the administrative environment of democracy and legal system has achieved the hedge between class and social stratum in the field of social life and political activities, creating the illusion of superficial balance. In this case, the government exists as a relatively independent entity, and its administrative activities can be detached from the opposition and conflict between classes and strata, and strive to achieve the goal of technicalization and efficiency in the sense of "implementation" as Goodnow said. Therefore, this kind of management is regarded as public management. However, because the social class and class opposition and conflict are still the basic social reality, it is impossible for the government and its administration to obtain publicity in the real sense, and at most, it can only create the illusion of publicity in form. It is in this sense that we say that modern administration only has certain publicity in form, but not in essence. Only in the new changes of human society can the publicity of administration be fully constructed.