Geographical elements of junior high school

1. shape: the earth is an irregular sphere with slightly flat poles and slightly bulging equator.

2. size: radius: 6371km; Polar radius: 6357 kilometers; Equatorial circumference: 40,000 kilometers.

3. Globe: A globe is a model of the earth. (find the earth axis, pole and equator on the globe)

4. Meridian:

Meridian characteristics: all meridians have the same length; Meridian indicates the north-south direction; The meridian is a semicircle.

Longitude: 0-180; The 0 longitude is the initial longitude, the east longitude is the east longitude, which is represented by the letter E, and the west longitude is the west longitude.

Represented by the letter w;

5. latitude:

Characteristics of weft: the length of weft varies, the equator is the longest, and it gradually shortens to the north and south poles; Both latitudes represent the east-west direction;

Latitude is a complete circle.

Latitude: 0-90 degrees; Latitude 0 is the equator, and north of the equator is the north latitude, which is represented by the letter n; South of the equator is the south latitude,

It is represented by the letter s.

6. Division of low, middle and high latitudes: In the northern and southern hemispheres, 0-30 is low latitude, 30-60 is middle latitude and 60-90 is high latitude.

7. the division of the eastern and western hemispheres: it is bounded by the warp circle composed of 20 W and 160 E; The eastern hemisphere is east of 20 W and west of160 E;

The western hemisphere is west of 20 W and east of160 E;

8. You can use the latitude and longitude net on the globe to determine the position anywhere on the earth.

9. Earth's rotation: alternation of day and night, rising sun and setting sun, time difference.

Direction: from west to east; Cycle: one day (24 hours); Center of rotation: Earth axis.

Geographical significance: There is a difference between day and night and time.

10, the revolution of the earth: the change of the four seasons, the length of the shadow.

Center of rotation: the sun; Direction: from west to east; Cycle: one year; Orbit of revolution: ellipse.

Geographical significance: it has produced seasonal changes and changes in the length of day and night.

1 1, division of five districts:

Chapter II: Maps

Representation methods of 1. scale: text type, line type and number type.

2. Scale comparison: the larger the denominator, the smaller the scale; The smaller the denominator, the larger the scale.

3. The larger the scale, the smaller the scope and the finer the content; The smaller the scale, the larger the scope and the simpler the content.

4, scale = distance on the map ÷ field distance

5. Direction on the map:

General map, with general orientation method: map orientation, up north and down south, left west and right east.

For maps with pointing targets, the pointing calibration method is used: the direction of pointing arrows generally points to the north.

A map with a latitude and longitude net is oriented by the latitude and longitude net: the longitude line indicates the north-south direction and the latitude line indicates the east-west direction.

6. Legend: Symbols representing various geographical things on the map. (Remember common legends)

7. Note: On the map, words used to explain the names of mountains, rivers, countries and cities, as well as numbers indicating the height and water depth of mountains.

8. Altitude (absolute height): The vertical distance of a point on the earth's surface above sea level.

Relative height: the vertical distance from one place to another on the earth's surface.

Contour: A line on a map connecting points at the same altitude.

9. On the contour topographic map, the contour lines are dense, indicating steep slope; The contour line is sparse, indicating that the slope is slow.

10, judging terrain by contour features:

Peak value: the contour line is high in the middle and low around.

Ridge: The contour line protrudes downward.

Valley: contour lines protrude to high places.

Saddle: The contour lines on both sides are relatively high.

Cliff: where several outlines overlap.

Chapter III: Land and Sea of the World

1, the proportion of land and water area on the earth's surface: ocean 7 1%, land 29%, land is divided into three parts, and ocean is divided into seven parts.

7 continents: Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe and Oceania. (In descending order of area)

Four oceans: Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean and Arctic Ocean. (In descending order of area)

Can accurately find out the distribution of seven continents and four oceans on the world map.

3, the dividing line between the mainland:

Asia and Europe: Urals, ural river, Caspian Sea, Caucasus, Black Sea and Turkish Strait.

Asia and Africa: Suez Canal.

North and South America: Panama Canal.

Asia and North America: Bering Strait.

4. land topography includes five categories: plains, plateaus, mountains, hills and basins.

Himalayas, Cordillera Mountains, Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and Amazon Plain can all be found on the topographic map.

6. Read the topographic map of the mainland and judge the general trend of the mainland.

7. Plate tectonic theory: The lithosphere on the earth's surface consists of six plates, namely, the Eurasian plate, the African plate and the Indian Ocean plate.

Pacific plate, America plate, Antarctica plate. The interior of the plate is relatively stable, and the crustal movement at the plate edge is relatively active.

Volcanoes and earthquakes are easy to form.

8. There are two major volcanic seismic belts in the world: the Pacific Rim volcanic seismic belt and the Mediterranean-Himalayan volcanic seismic belt.

Chapter IV: World Climate

1. Weather: Atmospheric conditions (wind and rain, heat and cold, sunny and sunny days, etc. ), and the weather is short-term and constantly changing.

Climate: the average weather condition in a place for many years. The climate is long and relatively stable.

2. Understand common weather symbols.

3. Temperature refers to the temperature of the atmosphere, in℃, and the measurement method is thermometer.

The temperature will change during the day. The highest temperature on land generally appears around 2 pm, and the lowest temperature appears around sunrise.

The temperature changes in a year. The highest average monthly temperature on land in the northern hemisphere is July, and the lowest temperature is 65438+ 10 month, but the opposite is true in the southern hemisphere.

5. Daily temperature difference: the difference between the highest temperature and the lowest temperature in a day.

Temperature annual range: the difference between the average temperature in the hottest month of the year and the average temperature in the most Leng Yue.

6. Vertical variation of temperature: in the same place, the temperature drops by 0.6℃ per altitude 100 m.

7. Learn to read the annual average isotherm of the world.

8. Distribution law of annual average temperature in the world:

Global temperature decreases from low latitude to high latitude;

At the same latitude, the temperature of ocean and land is different;

At the same latitude, the temperature in the plateau and mountainous area is low, and the temperature in the plain is high.

9. Learn to read the temperature curve.

10. Precipitation: Water vapor in the air falls on the ground in the form of rain, snow and hail, which is called precipitation. The measurement method is rain gauge, and the unit is millimeter (mm).

1 1, which can analyze the seasonal variation of precipitation in a place.

12, learn to look at the world precipitation distribution map.

13, regional difference of world precipitation:

There is more precipitation in equatorial regions and less precipitation in polar regions;

Near the tropic of cancer, there is more precipitation on the east coast of the mainland and less precipitation on the west coast;

In temperate regions, there is less precipitation on the mainland and more precipitation along the coast;

There is more precipitation on windward slope and less precipitation on leeward slope in mountainous area.

14, learn to read precipitation histogram.

15, the main influencing factors of world climate: latitude position, land and sea position, topography, etc.

16, know the main climate types and distribution.

17, which can explain the influence of climate on production and life.

Chapter V: World Residents

1, natural population growth rate = birth rate-mortality rate

Population density = total population/area

3. The densely populated areas in the world: the plain areas in the mid-latitude coastal areas such as East Asia, South Asia, Europe and East America.

Areas with sparse population distribution in the world: desert areas with drought and water shortage, rain forest areas with high temperature and humidity, and high latitude areas with severe cold all the year round,

Plateau mountainous area with high terrain and thin air.

4, the population problem:

Rapid population growth will lead to food shortage, housing shortage, traffic congestion, schooling, employment, difficulty in seeing a doctor and shortage of resources.

Too slow population growth will lead to problems such as labor shortage, insufficient national defense force and aging population.

5. The three major races in the world:

Yellow race: distributed in eastern and southeastern Asia, northern North America, northern and western South America.

Caucasians: Europe, West and South Asia, North Africa, Central North America, East Coast of South America and Oceania.

South Africa and Central Africa.

6. The main languages in the world are Chinese, English, French, Russian, Spanish and Arabic.

Chinese is the most widely used language in the world and English is the most widely used language.

7. The three major religions in the world:

Islam: Popular in West Asia and Southeast Asia, North Africa and East Africa.

Buddhism: spread from ancient India to East Asia and Southeast Asia.

Christianity: popular in Europe, America and Oceania.

8. The main forms of settlements include cities and villages.

9. Settlements are mainly distributed in areas with flat terrain, fertile soil, abundant water resources, warm and humid climate, rich natural resources and convenient transportation.

10. List some settlements listed in the World Cultural Heritage List.

Chapter VI: Development differences in different parts of the world.

1. Developed countries are mainly distributed in the northern hemisphere and Oceania in the southern hemisphere.

Developing countries are mainly distributed in the southern part of the northern hemisphere and the southern hemisphere, that is, most countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America.

Examples can be given to illustrate the difference in development level between developing countries and developed countries.

2. The United Nations is composed of five permanent members and ten non-permanent members from China, French, Russian, British and American, and its headquarters is in new york, USA.

The United Nations has done a lot of work in maintaining world peace and promoting international cooperation and development.

The continent where we live.

Section 1 Natural environment

1. Overview: Asia is the largest continent in the world, with the widest latitude and the farthest distance from east to west.

2. Geographical location: Most of them are located in the eastern and northern hemispheres, spanning the eastern, western, southern and northern hemispheres.

3. Asia borders the Pacific Ocean in the east, the Arctic Ocean in the north, the Indian Ocean in the south, the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea in the west.

4. The area is about 44 million square kilometers, accounting for 1/3 of the total land area of the world.

There are three peninsulas in the south, zhina Peninsula, India Peninsula and Arabian Peninsula from east to west.

6. Topographic features: Asia is dominated by mountains and plateaus, accounting for about 3/4 of the whole state. Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and Pamir Plateau are in the middle, Iran Plateau is in the west and Mongolia Plateau is in the north. The famous mountain ranges are Himalayas, Kunlun Mountain, Tianshan Mountain, Altai Mountain and Hindu Kush Mountain, which are distributed in the periphery of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and Pamirs Plateau (the above names need to be filled in on the map).

7. The plains are mostly distributed in the middle and lower reaches of major rivers and along the coast.

8. The ground in Asia fluctuates greatly, ranging from Mount Everest, the highest mountain in the world, to the lowest lake in the Dead Sea. The whole terrain is high in the middle and low around.

9. Rivers and lakes: Most of the big rivers in Asia originate from the mountains and plateaus in the middle and flow radially into the sea.

10. Rivers flowing into the Arctic Ocean include ob river, Yenisei River and Lena River.

1 1. Rivers flowing into the Pacific Ocean include Heilongjiang, Yellow River, Yangtze River and Mekong River.

12. Rivers flowing into the Indian Ocean include Ganges and Indus.

13. The famous lakes are: Caspian Sea, which is the largest lake in the world;

14. Lake Baikal, the deepest freshwater lake with the largest storage capacity in the world;

15. Dead Sea, the saltiest and lowest lake in the world (the above rivers and lakes should be filled in the map) 16. Climatic characteristics: the climate is complex and diverse (due to the wide latitude, great difference between land and sea, and complex terrain), the monsoon climate is remarkable (due to the junction of the largest continent and the largest ocean), and the continental climate is widely distributed.

18. Main climate types and distribution: temperate monsoon climate and subtropical monsoon climate in the east, tropical rainforest climate and tropical monsoon climate in the south, temperate continental climate in the central and western regions, tropical desert climate and Mediterranean climate in the southwest, coniferous forest climate and polar climate in the sub-frigid zone in the north, plateau and mountain climate in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (see P7 Figure 6.9).

19. There are 47 countries and regions in Asia, which are geographically divided into East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, West Asia, Central Asia and North Asia.

20. East Asia refers to China, Japan, North Korea, South Korea and Mongolia in East Asia;

2 1. Southeast Asia includes Indochina Peninsula and Malay Archipelago, with * * *1/countries and regions. They are: Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, Myanmar, Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines, Indonesia, Brunei and East Timor;

22. South Asia refers to the vast area between the archipelago and the Indian Ocean, south of the central and western segment of the Himalayas, with seven countries. There are two inland mountainous countries, Nepal and Bhutan, in the north, and three coastal countries, India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, in the middle. There are two island countries in the North and South Indian Ocean, Sri Lanka and Maldives. Because the Himalayas separate South Asia from other parts of Asia, it is a relatively independent unit of South Asia, so it is also called the South Asian subcontinent.

23. Central Asia is located in the middle of the Eurasian continent, including Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan.

24. West Asia includes Iranian Plateau, Arabian Peninsula, Mesopotamia Plain and Asia Minor Peninsula, with 20 countries and regions. They are: Iran, Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Oman, Yemen, Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Cyprus, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine, Israel, Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan.

25. North Asia means that Russia is in the north of Asia (see P3 Figure 6.4).

Section 2 Human environment

1. Asia is the most populous continent in the world, with 3.68 billion people. Concentrated in East Asia, Southeast Asia and South Asia. Among them, there are six countries with a population of over 6,543.8 billion: China, India, Japan, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Indonesia.

2. Overpopulation in Asia has put heavy pressure on resources and environment.

There are about 100 ethnic groups in Asia, accounting for about half of the total ethnic groups in the world.

4. Asia is the birthplace of human civilization: there are Chinese cultures that originated in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River;

5. Indus Valley culture originated from Indus Valley;

6. Ancient Indian culture originated in Mesopotamia (also known as the "two-river basin" because it was influenced by the Euphrates and Tigris rivers)

7. Economic development gap: developed countries: Japan's high income

Developing countries: high income in Singapore >; 9655 dollars

The income of Malaysia, South Korea and Saudi Arabia is $365,438 +025-9655.

China and Thailand have lower-middle income (reasons: Japan, New Zealand, South Korea, Malaysia and Thailand develop processing industries to promote economic development; Saudi Arabia exports oil)

Low-income countries such as Mongolia, Vietnam, India, Bangladesh and Nepal

Our neighbors and regions

Section 1 Japan

1. Location: An archipelagic country located in the east of Asian continent and the west of Pacific Ocean.

2. Territorial composition: It consists of Honshu, Hokkaido, Shikoku, Kyushu and thousands of small islands, collectively known as the Japanese archipelago. With a population of1.200 million, it is a country with dense isthmus.

3. Natural environment: Japan is mountainous, with mountains and hills accounting for 3/4 of the total land area. The vast plain is the largest plain. The coastline is tortuous and there are many excellent harbors. The famous seaports of young Kobe and Yokohama. There are many volcanoes and earthquakes, and Mount Fuji is an active volcano. Forest and water resources are abundant, but mineral resources are poor. It belongs to temperate monsoon climate (north) and subtropical monsoon climate (south), with maritime characteristics, warm in winter and cool in summer.

4. Economy: Japan is a capitalist country with a developed economy. The main industrial sectors are steel, machinery, electronics, chemistry and textiles.

(1) industry

Type A: developed processing trade economy.

B. industrial development conditions: favorable: rich labor resources and high quality; Strong scientific and technological strength; Many good ports are conducive to the development of foreign trade.

Disadvantages: there are many volcanoes and earthquakes;

The land area is small, the resources are few, and most of the resources and fuels needed by industry depend on imports; The domestic market is small and industrial products are mainly sold to the international market; Rely heavily on foreign countries

C Industrial distribution: Pacific coast and Seto inland sea coast (see P23: Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya and Kitakyushu).

D The targets of overseas investment and factory construction are: the United States, Western Europe, East Asia and Southeast Asia.

E Japan ranks first in the world in foreign exchange reserves and is a world economic power.

(2) Agriculture: Agricultural production does not occupy an important position in the economy, but it has a high level of modernization.

⑶ Fishery: The fishing amount has always ranked first in the world, and Hokkaido Fishing Ground is one of the four major fishing grounds.

5. Japan's cultural characteristics: East-West compatibility

Section 2 Southeast Asia

1. Singapore is a famous garden city country. Based on entrepot trade and shipping, the economy has developed industries such as oil refining, shipbuilding, electronics, textiles and food. Tourism income is one of the important economic sources in Singapore.

2. Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN): Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand were established in 1967. Brunei joined 1984, Vietnam joined 1995, Laos and Myanmar joined 1997 and Cambodia joined 1999. In the early days, ASEAN emphasized the peaceful settlement of regional disputes. In the early 1970s, we began to explore ways of economic cooperation and achieved rapid economic growth in the 1980s.

3. Composition: Indochina Peninsula+Malay Archipelago

4. Importance of geographical location: Located at the crossroads of Asia and Oceania, the Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean, the Straits of Malacca between the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra Island is the only place where Europe and Africa pass the shortest route to ports in Southeast Asia and East Asia, an important sea passage connecting the Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean, and a "sea lifeline" of Japan.

5. Terrain: (1) Indochina Peninsula: the upper reaches of mountains and rivers are rich in hydropower resources; The downstream plains and deltas have fertile soil, low terrain, easy irrigation, convenient transportation and dense population distribution.

⑵ Malay Archipelago: There are many volcanoes and rugged terrain, and the plains are mostly concentrated along the coast.

6. Climate: tropical monsoon climate (Indian zhina Peninsula) and tropical rain forest climate (Malaysian Islands).

Agricultural production: (1) The plain area of Indo-China Peninsula is densely populated, with little cultivated land, high temperature and rainy weather, and rice is the main food crop. Thailand, Vietnam and Myanmar are major rice exporters.

⑵ The humid and hot climatic conditions make Southeast Asia the largest producer of tropical cash crops in the world. Among them, Thailand is the world's largest producer of natural rubber, Malaysia is the world's largest producer of oil palm, Indonesia is the world's largest producer of coconut, cinchona cream and kapok, and the Philippines is the world's largest producer of banana hemp and coconut exporter.

The main minerals are tin and oil.

7. Southeast Asia is the region with the largest concentration of Chinese and overseas Chinese in the world, and Buddhism is prevalent.

Section 3 India

1. There are three major rivers in South Asia: Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra.

2. South Asia is located in tropical rivers and subtropics, with a tropical monsoon climate. Northeast Asia, which is located on the windward side of southwest monsoon, is rich in precipitation, and the precipitation in Kirabanqi reaches 1 1000 mm, which is the place with the most precipitation in the world.

3. Location: Most of them are located in the Indian Peninsula, bordering China in the northeast and northwest (with a continuous border with China) and surrounded by the Indian Ocean on three sides.

4. The second most populous country in the world, the country with the most cultivated land in Asia and the largest country in South Asia.

Northern terrain: Himalayas-long, narrow and rugged.

China people: Ganges Plain-low, flat and wide.

South: Deccan Plateau-low and wide.

5. River: Ganges River, which originates from the south side of Himalayas and flows into the Bay of Bengal.

6. Climate: tropical monsoon climate. From June to September, the southwest wind from the Indian Ocean prevails, which is the rainy season; 11-The northeast wind from the land prevailed in May of the following year, which was a dry season. Affected by tropical monsoon climate, floods and droughts in India are frequent (reason: the interannual variation of southwest monsoon leads to unstable precipitation).

Agriculture: The main food crops are wheat (mainly distributed in Deccan Plateau) and rice (mainly distributed in Ganges Plain in northeast China). After the Green Revolution, grain can be exported.

7. The main cash crops are cotton (northwest of Deccan Plateau), jute (northeast of Ganges Plain) and tea (northeast mountainous area).

8. Industry: During the colonial rule, textiles and mining were mainly developed. Now, the industrial sector is complete, especially in high-tech fields, such as atomic energy, aerospace and computers.

9. Major cities: New Delhi, the capital. Kolkata is the largest city in India and the center of hemp textile industry. Mumbai is India's largest port and center of cotton textile industry. Bangalore is India's computer software center, and India's software exports are second only to the United States.

Section 4 Russia

1. The largest country in the world, with an area of17.07 million square kilometers. Spanning the Eurasian continent, it is a traditional European country. Spanning the eastern and western hemispheres, the east-west length is 1000 km.

2. The total population is 65.438+0.47 billion, with Russians accounting for 80%. It is composed of 130 ethnic groups, and 100 ethnic groups speak Russian. This is a country with a vast territory and a sparse population.

3. The terrain is dominated by plains and plateaus, with plains accounting for half.

Topographic region: Four major topographic regions (the European part is mainly the Eastern European Plain, and the Asian part is called Siberia).

Eastern Europe Plain West Siberia Plain Middle Siberia Plateau Winter Siberia Mountain 4. Climate: (1) Type: Temperate continental climate is dominant, with significant differences from place to place.

⑵ Features: Winter is long and cold, and summer is short and warm.

⑶ cold pole: Oymyakon (northern hemisphere cold pole) 5. Rivers and lakes (3) Volga River: It is 3600 kilometers long and flows into the Caspian Sea, Russia's "mother river", which is the longest inland river in the world.

(2) Lake Baikal: the deepest freshwater lake in the world with the largest storage capacity.

6. Resources: Coal: Kuzbas

Iron: Kursk

Petroleum: Second Baku, Tyumen

The country with the widest distribution of coniferous forests in the sub-frigid zone in the world.

7. Four Industrial Zones (1) Moscow Industrial Zone: the most developed industrial zone in China.

(2) St. Petersburg Industrial Zone: The paper and textile industries are the most developed.

⑶ Ural Industrial Zone: petroleum, machinery and steel.

(4) Novosibirsk Industrial Zone: coal, oil and gas, electricity, steel.

8. Developed transportation (1) sailed to Five Seas (Volga River is connected with Baltic Sea, White Sea, Black Sea, Azov Sea and Caspian Sea through canals).

St Petersburg-the largest port (Baltic Sea)

Murmansk-an ice-free port along the Arctic Ocean

Vladivostok-a port on the Pacific coast

The railway is the most important mode of transportation, which is distributed radially around Moscow.

⑶ Pipeline transportation-the transportation mode with the largest freight volume.

Moscow, the capital, is the largest city, comprehensive industrial center and political, economic, cultural and transportation center in China. There are the famous Red Square, the Kremlin and the largest library in the world. St Petersburg is the second largest city and an important port in Russia.