According to the history of the ancient world in the Middle Ages, write a short passage to describe the scene of the cities in Western Europe in the Middle Ages.

1. Different characteristics of cities in Western Europe and China 1. The different origins of cities. Medieval cities in western Europe revived and came into being in the 10 to1/century. One of its characteristics is that after the completion of the feudal system, social productive forces developed further, and handicrafts were separated from the manor economy, which became the economic premise and material basis for the emergence of cities in western Europe. Secondly, cities in western Europe "were not inherited from the past, but re-established by freed serfs." (1) This is the class premise and political basis for the emergence of western European cities. Cities in western Europe are mostly produced in land and water transportation routes, commercial transit points and agricultural areas with dense population, fertile land and residents feeling that handicrafts are insufficient. Such as Paris, France and Flanders and Braben in the north; Koren and Lubbock, Berlin, Germany; Manchester, York and London in Britain; Venice, Florence and other cities in Italy. In addition, from the security point of view, cities are also produced near the location of big lords, archbishops, monasteries and military fortresses. The establishment of the new castle will go through a long historical process. At first, it was only used as a residence for handicrafts and commerce. For example, Bruges in Flanders, once the Earl of Flanders, built a castle at the corner of the Lisi River in 962, and soon a new castle or "suburb" rose outside it, where vendors, craftsmen and hotel clerks lived. The new castle began to be fenced with wooden fences, and then stones were brought from the ruins of an ancient Roman city a few miles away to build a stone castle. The new castle is a new industrial and commercial settlement, and the old castle is the residence of feudal lords. Emerging cities in western Europe, such as Hamburg, Nuremberg and StrasBourg, take "bourg" as their root, while Saint-Germain and Saint-Niels Bohr in St. Denis take "SAN" as their root, which mostly reflects that castles originated near old military fortresses or church monasteries. "By the end of 1 1,' (Bourgperson' no longer means a soldier or a servant of a castle, but a citizen" [2]. As for the cities rising at the river ferry, their names are also reflected, such as Frankford (the ferry of Franks) and Oxford (the ferry of cattle). These cities, which are emerging or rebuilt on the old ruins, are not large in scale, with only a few hundred or even two or three thousand people. Cities with tens of thousands of people are very rare. 14th century, London, England, the economic, political and military center of this country, with only 40,000 residents. Although the new house is not big, it has opened a gap for the feudal self-sufficient closed economy. The establishment of domestic market led to the disintegration of feudal economy. The situation in China is different. China entered the feudal society one thousand years earlier than Western Europe (475 BC in China and 476 AD in Western Europe). During the transition from slavery to feudalism, China experienced great turmoil, but it did not experience the invasion and destruction of foreign tribes like ancient Rome. The original superstructure has not been completely destroyed, but has been realized through certain transformation (reform). The old city during the period of slavery was basically inherited after entering the feudal system. Driven by the new relations of production, with the development of agriculture, handicrafts and commerce and a large number of enfeoffment, the number of cities increased and prospered in the Warring States period. For example, Zhao She replied to Tian Dan: "The ancients were divided into States within the four seas. Although the city is 300 feet big, its population is 3000. Today, the city of thousands of feet stands opposite. " Linzi, the capital of Qi State, has grown to "70,000 households, which are very rich and true ...". On the way to Linzi, the car hub hit, people jostled each other, and they became curtains, and they became curtains, sweating like rain [4]. Judging from the types of cities, in the historical records of China, the economic center city formed by the development of handicrafts and commerce has been growing with the development and progress of society. Such as Yangzhou in the Warring States, Wan, Chengdu, Hefei and Panyu in the Western Han Dynasty, and Quanzhou in the Tang Dynasty. During the Song and Ming Dynasties, in addition to the growing prosperity of traditional economic center cities, some new cities were added, such as Hankou, Beijing, Jiangning, Fuzhou, Zhangjiakou, Ningbo, Xiamen, Shanghai, Zhangzhou and Xining. Emerging towns have developed rapidly, especially in Jiangsu, Hangzhou, Song, Jia and Hu areas in the south of the Yangtze River, and capitalism has sprouted. The closed-door policy of the Qing Dynasty dealt a severe blow to the seeds of capitalism, especially the invasion of western powers after the Opium War. On the whole, however, China's cities were mainly established according to the political and military needs of the ruling class (the county system implemented in the Qin Dynasty). Although many cities are built in areas with dense population and fertile land similar to those in western Europe, they are different in nature. One is naturally formed, and the other is mainly established by the order of the ruler (of course, there are natural elements). Since the Qin and Han Dynasties, cities in China have been dotted with capitals, provincial capitals (counties, roads ...), fucheng, prefectures and counties. (There are special military towns and health centers on the frontier) In cities, there are both servants from the government and businessmen, both castles and new towns in medieval cities in Western Europe. But in cities, the government is the head and center, and industry and commerce are subsidiary products. In order to strengthen their rule, emperors of past dynasties enjoyed it, and often moved rich families and laborers to Kyoto. For example, Qin Shihuang ordered "moving the rich people in the world to Xianyang" (⑤), when Yang Di built Luoyang as the eastern capital, "moving tens of thousands of wealthy businessmen from Dajia to Tokyo" (⑤), and at the beginning of Jinling (Nanjing), the capital of Ming Taizu, "taking more than 45,000 households from Jiangsu and Zhejiang to strengthen the country. To sum up, the development law of western European cities is from the settlement of handicrafts and commerce to the new economic and political center. China City has gradually developed from a political and military center to a new political and economic center. 2. The structure of cities is different. At first, the medieval cities in western Europe were mainly inhabited by serfs and craftsmen who fled to manors, as well as merchants, vendors and restaurants run by fugitive serfs, and were basically a production city. The general center of the layout of a city is a square, which is where people hold and trade goods. Organizationally, according to the traditional democratic form of "rural commune", various industries gradually organized their own trade associations. Businessmen also organized chambers of commerce as an organization to unite and fight against their enemies (robbers and nobles) and prevent external competition in order to defend their own survival and interests. In western Europe, "medieval urban labor was different from Asian labor form and western rural labor form ... it took a big step forward and was a preparatory school for the continuity and economy of capital production mode and labor" [8]. There are two economic centers in western Europe-manors and cities, namely, agricultural economic centers and commercial economic centers, which are interdependent and have different development directions. The cities in China are very complicated, but generally speaking, the dignitaries, nobles, servants and servants are the main bodies, and the industrialists and businessmen are in a subordinate position. Consumption is greater than production, commerce exceeds handicrafts, and it is basically a consumer city. Cities are generally large in scale and large in population. The population of small and medium-sized cities is generally tens of thousands, and the largest is hundreds of thousands or even millions. Generally speaking, the chief executive's office is the center of the city, and there are many kinds of houses, so Chengguan will often develop into an industrial and commercial area. Dajia is a wealthy businessman in the city, and has many relationships with powerful people. Some people have bought official titles, and some people have widely ruled farmland houses and become a member of the ruling class. Handicraft workers, vendors and vendors from rural areas have not had organizations representing their own interests for a long time after arriving in cities, and they are particularly vulnerable because of insufficient manpower. The formation of urban guilds in China was late, which can be found in the inscription of Fangshan Shijing, indicating that there were guilds in the north of Tianbao to Zhenyuan in Tang Dynasty, which was more than 1000 years later than the formation of feudal cities. The real guild may be after the Ming Dynasty. Pet-name ruby But even then, guilds were different from Western Europe. Therefore, the civil movement did not become active until the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Most farmers in China who went to the city went bankrupt. They don't have certain personal freedom like western Europe. When I went to the city, I lived by Japanese laborers and also worked as handicrafts or vendors. They have a deep sense of place and great mobility. When conditions improve, they will go back to their hometown to buy real estate and farms. Some people have lived in cities for generations, and when conditions are poor, they move to the countryside to make a living. Accustomed to accepting the feudal exploitation mode of "land to the tiller, depending on its tax" [⑩]. There is no strict boundary between urban and rural areas, and there is no essential change in farmers entering the city or citizens returning home. They are still basically subordinate to feudalism, and it is difficult for them to develop into a new bourgeoisie. 3. The role of cities is different. Medieval cities in Western Europe were the bases of commodity production, the bastions of the anti-feudal struggle of oppressed serfs, the cradles of secular culture and the Renaissance. Cities and kingship form an alliance to promote national unity and the formation of a modern nation-state. Its appearance and development became a graveyard for burying medieval feudal lords. When cities began to appear in feudal territory, most lords supported them. This is because: (1) there is no subordinate relationship among the territories in western Europe. After the serfs in the first place fled to the second place, the lords in the second place could get taxes from their own industries and increase their income. (2) In order to obtain craftsmen's handicrafts and various luxuries from nearby merchants to meet the growing demand, the lords are keen on the emergence of new industrial and commercial centers in their own territory. (3) The lords gave preferential treatment to slaves who fled from other places to prevent craftsmen from entering other territories. Therefore, they are lenient in taxation and lenient in justice. Roads and bridges, shacks and garden stalls are being built. , generous discount [① ①]. These were welcomed by the fugitives. The new lords' protection and tolerance for fugitive serfs is to safeguard their exploitation and rule, while fugitive serfs long for free trade and life. So new contradictions and struggles began. The new citizens launched a struggle to get rid of the control of the lords and strive for urban autonomy, also known as the urban commune movement. This movement began with the appearance of 1 1 century cities and ended with the formation of13rd century cities. Their ways of struggle are flexible and diverse, and some gain autonomy through money redemption, such as the richer cities in southern France; Some gained autonomy through armed struggle, such as Cheng Lang in France and Milan in Italy. According to statistics, "the number of those autonomous cities increased tenfold between 1 100 and 1300, and their population sometimes increased to two or three times" [① ②]. In a city that has achieved full autonomy, there is a citizen's congress, which is the highest authority of the city, and there is a permanent institution to manage the city (through elections). They enjoy independent administration, justice, finance, coinage, military defense and the right to make peace with foreign countries, such as Venice, Genoa, Florence and China. In addition, there are some cities that were born under mutual compromise and only achieved incomplete autonomy. For example, in Paris, France, the French king was "allowed to participate in the trial of commercial issues and cases of the Paris Chamber of Commerce" [① ③]. In short, citizens are free and enjoy different degrees of political participation. In order to strengthen the kingship, the ruling class formed a political alliance with urban citizens, which made the political pattern in Western Europe have new changes and new characteristics. With the support of cities, Britain and France in western Europe quickly got rid of the chaotic disputes of feudal separatism in the13rd century and14th century respectively, and established a centralized hierarchical monarchy. (Britain held a parliament in 1295, and France held a three-level meeting in 1302). Cities and kingship formed alliances and supported each other, forming a situation of economic prosperity and strong national strength. The development of urban industry and commerce has strongly promoted the reform in rural areas. The implementation of rural monetary land rent gradually liberated the identity of the whole serf, and then promoted the formation of a unified domestic market. The day when the kingship in western Europe was strengthened was the time when the feudal society collapsed rapidly. Once the alliance that needed mutual support in the early years broke down, the bourgeois revolution was brewing. Cities in China have been the centers of rulers at all levels and consumption since the Middle Ages. As Marx pointed out; "In Asia, the prosperity or existence of cities is entirely born from local government expenditure" [① ④]. As the cities in China are completely controlled by the rulers, their policies on urban industry and commerce proceed from their own interests, and the fate of urban industry and commerce changes from time to time. For example, at the beginning of the Western Han Dynasty, the "prohibition of the sea" was one, and the lights were opened and closed, and the mountains were forbidden. "This laissez-faire policy towards industry and commerce immediately aroused the activity of the national industry and commerce. At the same time, the policy of "keeping laws and prohibiting them, paying less attention to land rent, attaching importance to officials and people" (① ⑤) was adopted, which quickly restored and developed agriculture. After 60 or 70 years of frivolous taxation, there was a prosperous time of "the rule of culture and scenery" in the early years of the Western Han Dynasty. The great development of private industry and commerce in this period made many industrial and commercial cities prosperous, including 18 cities such as, Luo, Han, Linzi, Jiangling, Chen, Wu, Shouchun and Panyu. Rich businessmen came into being. They "or @ ① have poor financial services, turned around for hundreds of times, abandoned their services, and bowed their heads and looked up. Smelting and boiling salt will make you rich or tired, instead of helping the country's urgent needs ... "[① ⑥]. The development of commodity economy has impacted the feudal hierarchy and the foundation of natural economy. Since the era of Liu Bang in the early Han Dynasty, many officials have suggested implementing the policy of "restraining business". Emperor gaozu once ordered that "businessmen should not ride horses with clothes and silks, and it is difficult to pay heavy taxes" [① ⑦], but the harvest was not great. During the period of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, with the recovery and development of the whole economy, especially the prosperity of the agricultural economy, the rulers of the Han Dynasty began to crack down on private industry and commerce and promulgated a series of policies to curb the development of industry and commerce, such as selling salt and iron, which was both uneven and uneven. Coupled with the increasingly decadent ruling class, it has caused new economic destruction and social unrest. This cycle has seriously hindered the development of urban industry and commerce and social progress. Because the development of wealthy businessmen in China City is based on the will of feudal rulers, they are politically tied with feudal forces, and economically use their surplus capital to buy farmland houses and become merchant landlords. They have no right to demand autonomy. Handicraft manufacturers and vendors in cities operate and live under the strict supervision of the government, so it is difficult to organize and fight with few people. Government-run handicrafts are only servants serving the ruling class, and there is no connection between them. The nature of China's cities is different from that of Western Europe. The real big city of China, here, can only be regarded as the military camp of the emperor, and it is a wart on the structure of the real economy. Today, however, history is still developing, but it is too slow. /kloc-After 0/6th century, it fell behind western Europe more and more. Second, the reasons for the different characteristics of Chinese and western cities 1. Western Europe and China have different forms of land ownership. Feudal land ownership is the foundation of feudal system, which has its own characteristics and different characteristics. The land in western Europe was given by the king to the Lord, and the land was the hereditary territory of the feudal Lord, which was inherited according to the eldest son inheritance system (or testamentary successor). Lords at all levels adopt manor system in land management of their own territories, and land cannot be bought or sold. China's land system, though nominally "the land under heaven is not the land of kings", is actually the land ownership of landlords. In the early feudal society, there was a period of landlord land system, but it was short-lived. In the Warring States Period, Shang Yang's political reform in Qin Dynasty "except for the ore fields, people can buy and sell, while the rich have a field of buildings, and the poor have no place to stand" [9]. From then on, it quickly transitioned to the landlord's land ownership, and the land could be bought and sold freely. Although there have been shadow seals and imperial houses, the proportion is not large. In addition, although the systems of limiting farmland, dividing farmland, king farmland, occupying farmland, leveling farmland and public farmland were limited, their effects were not good and they were short-lived. Under the land ownership of landlords in China, land changes frequently. There are not only big landlords, but also small and medium landlords and a certain number of yeomen. 2. Western Europe and China have different class structures. In feudal society, the exploitation and oppression of peasants by feudal owners caused class opposition and contradictions, which are the same, but each has its own characteristics. Western Europe established feudal hierarchy and separatist party through fiefdoms and special privilege system, which followed each other in turn, just like an independent kingdom. The centralized system appeared late, and the disputes between lords were more prominent. The peasants under the jurisdiction of the feudal lords were strictly bound to the land, and they were in serfdom because they had no freedom of personal migration for generations, which deteriorated with the formation of the feudal separatist regime of the feudal lords. With the development of manor economy, they used the contradiction between lords to escape, opened up new venues and gradually formed cities. The city became a refuge for serf liberation and the opposite of serfdom. In the late feudal society, the emerging civil class, that is, the bourgeoisie, has flourished. Soon after China entered the feudal society, a centralized feudal country was formed. Because land can be bought and sold freely, and the ruling class has adopted the imperial examination system to select officials since the Sui and Tang Dynasties, intellectuals from small and medium-sized landlords can rise to the status of nobles. Coupled with the land inheritance and household division, the ruling class did not disintegrate day by day like Western Europe. On the contrary, it is constantly enriched and strengthened, so that they form a net and unite from the central government to the local government to exploit the broad masses of farmers. Bankrupt farmers are generally reluctant to leave their homes. Even if they enter the city, they will enter another trap from one trap and will not be truly liberated. China's rural economy has long been difficult to get the help of urban commodity economy, and its development is slow. The combination of handicraft industry and agriculture is relatively solid, and it is difficult to form a new urban bourgeoisie. 3. Western Europe and China have different political structures. Although they are all dictatorships in the landlord stage, their forms and contents are different. With the development of western European society, kingship and citizens once formed a political alliance. 13 and 14 centuries, hierarchical monarchy appeared in Britain and France, until "the monarchy repaid its allies by slavery and plunder" [② attending], and the bourgeois revolution broke out. During the development of China, there was no alliance between the city and the kingship, and the bourgeoisie in the Middle Ages did not form at all. Although there were large-scale peasant class uprisings, they all failed without exception, because of the dispersion of farmers and the extreme backwardness caused by them. 4. The influence of religion and other factors. Christian church in western Europe is the pillar of feudal society in western Europe, and its religious power is often greater than the royal power. The dispute between religious power and kingship weakens each other, and western European cities often arise and develop in their contradictions. The Crusade lasted for hundreds of years from 1 1 to13rd century, which brought havoc to people in the east and west. In this drastic change, most feudal knights disappeared, and some serfs took advantage of the situation and fled to cities. The Crusades made feudal lords in western Europe more greedy and extravagant, and thus became more and more dependent on cities. The exploitation mode was changed to monetary land rent, and a large amount of ransom was collected, so that the serfs who paid the ransom were free, which was objectively conducive to the disintegration of feudalism. In addition, there were prosperous commercial cities in western Europe during the Roman Empire, and there were commercial routes extending in all directions between regions and countries. After the production is resumed, it is conducive to recovery and development on the original basis. Religion in China is an accessory of imperial power. China has a vast territory and abundant resources, and its neighboring countries are closed. Natural and man-made disasters, farmers often flee to remote and wide towns to rebuild their homes. They are not interested in the city, because the city is the center of reaction, and they regard it as a fear of the road, and because the city is the center of consumption, it is difficult for them to live for a long time. They are not as attractive to cities as western Europe.