Urgently ask for the geography review outline of the second volume of the eighth grade! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Chapter V: Geographical differences in China.

1, China has a vast territory, and the geographical environment in different regions is very different. According to the differences in (geographical) location, (natural) environment and (human) geographical features, China can be divided into (4) large geographical regions, namely (North) region, (South) region (Northwest) region and (Qinghai-Tibet) region.

2. The monsoon region generally includes the (north) region and the (south) region in the four geographical regions of China; Non-monsoon regions generally include the (Northwest) region and the (Qinghai-Tibet) region in China.

3. The dividing line between the southern region and the northern region generally passes through the Qinling Mountains and Huaihe River, which is basically consistent with the 1 month (0) degree isotherm and the (800) mm annual precipitation line.

4. Affected by the natural environment, there are also great differences in (mode of production), (living habits) and (cultural traditions) between the North and the South. Farmland in the north is mostly (dry land), mainly planted (wheat, soybean), cooked (once a year) or (three crops every two years). Traffic is mainly (land traffic). There are many paddy fields in the south, mainly planted (rice, rape, etc.). ), and ripening (two crops a year) or (three crops). Transportation mainly depends on water.

5. The topography of the northern region is mainly (plains and plateaus). Climate type (temperate monsoon climate). The southern region includes (the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, the southern coast and the southwest); In humid (subtropical and tropical monsoon) climate, the topography is mostly staggered (plains, hills, basins and plateaus).

6. The northwest region includes the northern part of the province (Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, most parts of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region and Gansu). The climate is mainly temperate continental climate (arid and semi-arid). The terrain is mainly (plateau, basin). The eastern plateau is dominated by landforms (grasslands and deserts); There is a large area (desert) in the western basin, and only sporadic oases appear on the edge of the basin. There are few rivers in northwest China, most of which are inland rivers.

7. The Qinghai-Tibet region includes the western part of the province (Xizang Autonomous Region, Qinghai and Sichuan); The climate is dominated by (alpine climate); The terrain is mainly (plateau, mountain). With an average altitude of over (4,000) meters, it is known as the "roof of the world".

8. Northwest China and Qinghai-Tibet are the main pastoral areas in China, and the pasture and main livestock breeds have their own characteristics. Inner Mongolia (temperate grassland pasture); Xinjiang is mainly (mountain pasture); Mainly Qinghai and Tibet (alpine pasture). Hulunbeier grassland in Inner Mongolia (three hippos and three cows), Xinjiang (fine wool sheep), Qinghai-Tibet (yak), (Tibetan sheep) and Ningxia (Tan sheep) are all famous livestock breeds.

9. In the foothills of the northwest (Hetao area, Ningxia Plain, Hexi Corridor, Tianshan Mountain), people have developed (irrigated agriculture) by using meltwater (river water, mountain ice and snow); In the Qinghai-Tibet region (Yarlung Zangbo River basin), (Huangshui River basin) and other low-altitude areas, there is (valley) agriculture.

Chapter VI Understanding Provinces and Regions

1, Beijing is located in the north of the (North China) Plain, which is the center of the whole country (politics and culture) and also the center of international exchanges. It is the hub of China (road, railway and air traffic).

2. The pattern of the old city of Beijing was formed in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties. The buildings in the city are arranged like a chessboard, and the Forbidden City is located in the center of the city, which is the representative of the planning and construction of China's historical capitals.

The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region and the Macao Special Administrative Region are located on the east and west sides of the lower reaches of the Pearl River, of which (Hong Kong) is located on the east side and (Macao) is located on the west side.

Hong Kong consists of three parts (Hong Kong Island, Kowloon Peninsula and New Territories) and more than 200 surrounding islands. It is an international trade center, (transportation center, financial center), information service and (tourism) center.

5. Hong Kong has a small population, more mountains and less flat land, and the land resources available for urban development are limited. "Going to heaven"-building tall buildings and "going to sea"-reclaiming land from the sea have become two important ways for Hong Kong to expand its urban land use.

6. Macau is composed of (Macau Peninsula, Taipa Island and Coloane Island), and (gaming tourism) is an important pillar industry of Macao's economic development.

7. Taiwan Province Province includes (Taiwan Province Island) and many small islands nearby (Penghu Islands and Diaoyu Islands). Taiwan Province Island is the largest island in China. It borders the East China Sea of China in the north, the Pacific Ocean in the east, the South China Sea in the south and Fujian Province across the Taiwan Province Strait in the west. It is also a rich treasure island, with superior natural environment and abundant resources (forests, minerals and aquatic products), and is known as the "pearl of the southeast sea of the motherland".

8. Taiwan Province Island has a (subtropical and tropical) climate, which is warm and humid. The (plain) land in the west is fertile and rich in fruits (rice, sugarcane, tea and tropical and subtropical). The forest area is vast and has the reputation of "Asian Natural Botanical Garden". Cinnamomum camphora is the most famous tree species in Taiwan Province Province, and its camphor production ranks first in the world. In addition, Taiwan Province Island is also known as "the rice warehouse on the sea, the sweet island in the east, the hometown of fruits, the sea of forests and the southeast salt bank".

9. Since the 1960s, Taiwan Province Province has made use of its own advantages to focus on the development of (export processing) industries and formed an "import-processing-export" economy. The proportion of industrial products in export trade has steadily increased. Among them, the industry is mainly distributed in the (western) plain.

10, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, located in the border of China (northwest), is the largest province in China, and it is a multi-ethnic area with (Uygur) and (Han) as the main body. Known as (the hometown of singing and dancing, the hometown of melons and fruits). There are the largest desert (Taklimakan Desert), the hottest place (Turpan Basin) and the largest basin (Tarim Basin) in China.

1 1. Xinjiang mountains and basins are alternately distributed, with (Altai Mountain) in the north, (Tianshan Mountain) in the middle and (Kunlun Mountain) in the south. The majestic North Tianshan and South Tianshan are (Junggar) and (Tarim) basins respectively.

12, because it is far away from the ocean and surrounded by tall mountains, the airflow from the ocean is not easy to reach, so Xinjiang (precipitation) is scarce and the climate (drought). There are sporadic oases in the piedmont plain and some areas along the river at the edge of the basin. Their water sources mainly come from precipitation (mountain areas) and meltwater (ice and snow).

13, Xinjiang (oasis) is the most important agricultural production base, where summer (high temperature) and (light) are sufficient (large temperature difference between day and night), which is suitable for planting a variety of crops. People use the ancient water diversion project (karez) to develop characteristic (irrigation) agriculture. Wheat, corn and sorghum are the main crops here. Based on the unique light and heat conditions, (cotton, sugar beet and various fruits) have become the characteristic agricultural products of Xinjiang oasis.

14. The deserts in Tarim Basin are widely distributed and rich in oil and gas resources, of which natural gas accounts for 22% of the total land natural gas resources in China. With the gradual implementation of the national energy strategic decision of "stabilizing (east) and vigorously developing (west)", Xinjiang is expected to become an important industrial (oil and gas) base in China.

The implementation of 15 (West-to-East Gas Transmission Project) will promote the use of clean energy such as natural gas in cities and villages around Tarim Basin, and relieve the (environmental) pressure caused by firewood logging in surrounding areas. Drive local economic development.

Chapter VII Inland Areas of the Province

1. The Pearl River Delta is located in the southeast of Guangdong Province, at the lower reaches of the Pearl River, adjacent to Hong Kong and Macao, and across the sea from Southeast Asia. It is called the "South Gate" of China.

2. The special economic zones in the Pearl River Delta are Shenzhen and Zhuhai, and the coastal open city is Guangzhou.

3. The Pearl River Delta and Xishuangbanna are both tropical monsoon climates with high temperature and rainy weather, but the wind direction of summer monsoon is different.

4. The products of the Pearl River Delta are exported to Southeast Asia, Europe, Africa, America and Oceania through Hong Kong and Macao. At the end of the 20th century, it became the largest export base of electronic products and consumer goods in the world.

5. The Pearl River Delta is an export-oriented economy, and the basic mode of cooperation with Hong Kong and Macao is "store in front and factory in back".

In recent years, the focus of foreign investment has shifted from the Pearl River Delta to the Yangtze River Delta.

7. The development of processing and manufacturing industry in the Pearl River Delta has promoted the development of service industry and absorbed a large number of foreign countries.

The labor force has accelerated the pace of urbanization.

8. At present, China's urbanization level is less than 40%, which has a certain gap with 70% in developed countries.

Xishuangbanna is located at the southern foot of Hengduan Mountains in Yunnan Province, bordering Myanmar and Laos in the south, and the Lancang River flows through it.

10, Xishuangbanna is the best-preserved tropical rain forest in China except Hainan Province, with many kinds and layers of rain forest vegetation.

1 1. The main ethnic minority in Xishuangbanna is the Dai people. They live in bamboo houses, eat bamboo rice, celebrate the water-splashing festival and dance peacock dance.

12, Xishuangbanna has long been dominated by agricultural production, and now tourism has developed into a leading industry.

Chapter VIII Inter-provincial Regions

1. The Loess Plateau is the largest loess distribution area in the world, and the aeolian theory is generally accepted about the formation of the Loess Plateau.

2. The Loess Plateau starts from Taihang Mountain in the east, reaches Wushaoling Mountain in the west, Qinling Mountain in the south and the Great Wall in the north. There are three basic landforms in the Loess Plateau: loess plateau, loess beam and loess headland.

3. The loess plateau has broken ground, high valley density, less flat land and many slopes, and vertical steep cliffs are common on both sides of the valley.

4. The loess on the Loess Plateau is loose in structure, with many gaps and vertical cracks, and many substances are easily soluble in water.

5. The Loess Plateau has a temperate monsoon climate, and the precipitation is concentrated in July and August, with heavy rain.

6. The Loess Plateau is bare and lacks vegetation protection. Due to people's unreasonable reclamation, mining and road construction activities, the surface vegetation has been destroyed and soil erosion is serious.

7. Generally speaking, the greater the slope of the ground, the longer the slope, the more precipitation, the greater the intensity of precipitation, the less vegetation on the ground, and the more serious the soil erosion.

8. Soil erosion in the Loess Plateau has taken away the fertile soil on the surface and reduced crop production; Increase, expand and deepen the valley, resulting in a decrease in cultivated land area; It also transported a lot of sediment to the Yellow River, which caused great difficulties in river regulation and flood control.

9. The most serious soil erosion areas in China are the Loess Plateau, Sichuan Basin and Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau.

10. Loess Plateau is characterized by broken terrain, arid climate, serious soil erosion and frequent natural disasters.

1 1. The main natural disaster in the Loess Plateau is flood, which has caused many geological disasters such as mudslides, landslides and collapses.

12, the control of loess plateau adopts the combination of biological measures and engineering measures; Reasonable arrangement of production activities; In addition, strictly controlling population growth and solving the contradiction between man and land are also fundamental governance measures.

The leading industry in the Loess Plateau is energy industry.

13. The Yangtze River runs from Panzhihua in Jiangxi to Shanghai in the east, which is a long and narrow "strip" region from east to west.

14, the terrain along the river is low and flat, and the terrain is mainly plain and low hills; The climate belongs to subtropical monsoon climate, with high temperature and rainy weather; Affected by topography and climate, there are many rivers and lakes, which are the areas with the richest surface water resources in China. There are also abundant hydropower, forests, minerals, aquatic products and cultivated land resources along the Yangtze River.

15, the Yangtze River connects the economically developed coastal areas and the resource-rich western areas along the Yangtze River, which is the link between the east and the west.

16. The Yangtze River is the lifeline for the establishment and development of coastal cities. Among them, Shanghai, Nanjing, Wuhan and Chongqing are regional economic, cultural and transportation centers, which have a strong radiation and driving role in regional economic development.

17, Shanghai is the largest city in China, the largest commercial center, industrial center, the largest port, and also an important financial, scientific and educational center, which plays a leading role in the economic development of the Yangtze River Delta, the Yangtze River and even the whole country.

The Yangtze River is a highly developed comprehensive industrial zone in China. From west to east, steel and coal industrial bases centered on Panzhihua and Liupanshui have been formed. Electric power and metallurgical industrial bases centered on Yichang and Chongqing; An important steel and textile industrial base centered on Wuhan; Shanghai, Nanjing, Hangzhou and other cities form the largest comprehensive industrial base in China.

19. There are automobile and motorcycle bases along the Yangtze River in China, which constitute the automobile industry corridor along the Yangtze River.

20. In recent years, due to the steep slope in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, the forest area has been reduced and soil erosion has been serious, which has led to the decline of soil fertility and the siltation of rivers, reservoirs and lakes, which has aggravated the flood disaster in the lower reaches.

2 1. The middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River are the most concentrated, serious and frequent flood disasters in the Yangtze River basin.

22. Acid rain is a phenomenon of air pollution. Precipitation with PH less than 5.6 becomes acid rain, which causes corrosion hazards to water and soil, plants and buildings. The main acid rain areas in China are Southwest China, Central China and East China, among which Central China is the most polluted area by acid rain.

23. The basic national conditions of China are vast territory and great regional differences; It has a large population and a low per capita GNP.

24. The Three-North Shelterbelt covers the northwest, north and northeast of China and is the largest ecological shelter forest in the world.

25. The main problems facing mankind are population, resources and environment.

Review materials of eighth grade biology (part two)

Unit 7 Chapter 1 Biological Reproduction and Development

I. Plant reproduction

1. Sexual reproduction: a reproductive mode in which fertilized eggs develop into new individuals. For example, seed propagation (reproduction of offspring from seeds in fruits through flowering, pollination and fruiting). ) (Egg cells in ovules combine with sperm in pollen to form fertilized eggs → embryos → seeds)

2. Asexual reproduction: Without the combination of hermaphroditic germ cells, new individuals are directly produced by the mother. Such as cutting, grafting, layering and tissue culture.

3. The key of grafting: the scion is closely combined with the cambium of the rootstock to ensure survival.

Reproduction and development of insects

1. Complete metamorphosis: In the process of developing from fertilized eggs into new individuals, the structure and living habits of larvae and adults are very different, and this development process is called metamorphosis. Eggs → larvae → pupae → adults. For example: silkworms, bees, butterflies, moths, flies and mosquitoes.

2. Incomplete metamorphosis: egg → nymph → adult. Examples: locust, cicada, cricket, mole cricket, mantis.

Reproduction and development of amphibians

1. Abnormal development: egg → tadpole → young frog → adult frog.

2. Features: Oviposition, in vitro fertilization.

Four. Breeding and development of birds

1. process: nesting, courtship, mating, spawning, hatching and brooding.

2. Features: Oviposition and fertilization

3. Structure of bird eggs: yolk is an egg cell. The blastoderm contains the nucleus. Eggshell and shell membrane-protection, egg white-nutrition and protection, egg yolk-nutrition. The blastoderm is where the embryo develops.

Chapter II Inheritance and Variation of Organisms

Heredity: refers to the similarity between parents and children.

Variation: refers to the difference between offspring and parents.

First, genes control biological characteristics.

1 Biological characteristics: biological morphological and structural characteristics, physiological characteristics and behavior patterns.

2 Relative traits: different manifestations of the same trait of the same organism.

3. Genes control biological characteristics. For example: transgenic super mice and mice.

Organisms inherit genes rather than traits.

Second, gene transfer between parents and children.

1. gene: DNA fragment on chromosome that controls biological characteristics.

2.DNA: It is the main genetic material of double helix structure.

3. Chromosome: A substance in the nucleus that can be dyed dark by alkaline dyes.

4. Genes are transmitted through sperm or egg cells. Sperm and egg cells are the "bridge" of gene transmission between parents and children.

The morphology and number of chromosomes in each biological cell are determined.

Chromosomes exist in pairs in biological cells, and genes also exist in pairs, which are located on paired chromosomes respectively.

In cell division that forms sperm or egg cells, chromosomes are reduced by half.

Dominance and Recessiveness of Three Genes

1. Relative traits include dominant traits and recessive traits. The first generation hybrids are dominant.

2. recessive trait genome becomes: dd dominant trait genome is called Dd or DD.

China's marriage law stipulates that marriage is prohibited between lineal blood relatives and collateral blood relatives within three generations.

4. If a family once had genetic diseases or carried pathogenic genes, its descendants are more likely to carry pathogenic genes. If the related offspring remarry and have children, the chances of suffering from this disease will increase.

Aa A a

Ah ah ah ah

AA Aa Aa aa

Sex inheritance of four people

1. There are 23 pairs of chromosomes in each normal person's somatic cell. (Male: 44+XY Female: 44+XX)

2. Among them, 22 pairs are identical to men and women, which are called autosomes, and 1 pairs are different from men and women, which are called sex chromosomes. The male is XY and the female is XX.

3. Equal opportunities for boys and girls, 1: 1.

Five-level mutant organism

1. The variation of biological characters is common. Variation is firstly determined by the difference of genetic material basis, and secondly related to the environment. So there are genetic variation and non-genetic variation.

2. Examples of human applying the principle of genetic variation to cultivate new varieties: artificial selection, cross breeding and space breeding (gene mutation).

Chapter III Biological Evolution

First of all, the origin of life on earth

1. Most scholars believe that the process from inorganic substances in the primitive atmosphere to organic substances and then to primitive life was carried out on the primitive earth.

2. Primitive earth conditions: high temperature, high pressure, ultraviolet rays, thunder and lightning, primitive ocean and lack of oxygen.

3. protein, nucleic acid is an important substance in life

Second, the course of biological evolution.

1. comparison method: according to certain standards, compare interrelated things to determine their similarities and differences.

2. Fossils: the remains, relics or traces of life of organisms buried in the stratum for various reasons and formed after tens of thousands of years of complex changes. For example: archaeopteryx fossils (ancient reptiles → ancient birds)

3. The general trend of biological evolution: simple to complex, low to advanced, aquatic to terrestrial.

Third, the reasons for biological evolution

1. Simulate the formation process of protective color: one aspect of animals' adaptation to the environment is the result of natural selection.

2. Natural selection: after living competition, the fittest survive and the unsuitable are eliminated.

3. Process: excessive reproduction, survival competition, genetic variation, survival of the fittest.

4. Significance: Organisms constantly evolve through heredity, variation and natural selection.

Unit 8 Chapter 1 Infectious Diseases and Immunity

I. Infectious diseases and their prevention

1. pathogen: bacteria, viruses, parasites and other organisms that cause infectious diseases.

2. The basic link of the epidemic of infectious diseases: susceptible people pass through the source of infection.

3. Preventive measures for infectious diseases: control the source of infection, cut off the route of transmission, and protect susceptible people.

Immunization and planned immunization

1. Three lines of defense of human body:

The first line: skin and mucous membrane

The second way: bactericidal substances and phagocytes in body fluids.

The third way: immune organs and immune cells.

2. Antibodies: When pathogens invade the human body and stimulate lymphocytes, lymphocytes will produce a special protein for pathogens.

3. Antigen: a substance (such as a pathogen) that causes the human body to produce antibodies.

4. Immunity: Initially refers to the human body's resistance to pathogens.

Now it refers to a physiological function of the human body, which enables the human body to identify its own and non-self components, thus destroying and rejecting the antigenic substances of the human body, or the damaged cells and tumor cells produced by the human body itself, so as to maintain human health.

Vaccine: a biological product usually made of inactivated or attenuated pathogens, which can produce corresponding antibodies after being inoculated into human body.

6. Planned immunization, meaning:

Chapter II Drugs and First Aid

Safe use of prescription drugs (R) and over-the-counter drugs (OTC)

1. Names and functions of some commonly used drugs. For example, Niuhuang Jiedu tablets can be used to treat diseases such as sore throat. The new quick-acting cold tablets can be used to treat nasal congestion, sore throat, headache and fever caused by colds.

2. Summarize the common sense of safe medication. -Analysis of information contained in drug labels. Main ingredients, indications, usage and dosage, drug specifications, precautions, production date and expiration date of the drug.

4. 120 first aid

5. artificial respiration

6. Chest compressions

7. Bleeding and hemostasis: external bleeding, internal bleeding, capillary bleeding, venous bleeding and arterial bleeding.

Chapter III Self-awareness and Health Improvement

First, assess your health.

1. Health refers to a good state of physical, psychological and social adaptation.

2。 Keep a happy mood: Happiness is the core of adolescent mental health.

Second, adjust your emotions.

Methods: divert attention; Choose the right way to vent your troubles; self-consolation

Second, choose a healthy lifestyle.

1. Influence of lifestyle on health: Chronic non-communicable diseases are not only affected by genetic factors and environment, but also related to personal lifestyle. Unhealthy lifestyle accelerates the occurrence and development of these diseases.

2. To explore the effect of alcohol or tobacco extract on the heart rate of Daphnia. 25%) can promote the heart rate of Daphnia, and high concentration of alcohol can inhibit the heart rate of Daphnia.

3. Harm of alcoholism to human health: Alcohol will damage people's heart and blood vessels, and alcoholism will make the brain excessively excited or paralyzed, leading to neurasthenia and mental decline. Long-term alcoholism can lead to alcoholism, excessive drinking and life-threatening.

4. Harm of smoking to human health: When tobacco burns, harmful substances such as nicotine and tar in the smoke enter the human body, causing damage to the human nervous system, reducing people's memory and attention, and also inducing various respiratory diseases, such as chronic bronchitis and lung cancer.

5. Harm of drugs: it will damage people's nervous system, reduce human immune function, cause cardiopulmonary injury, respiratory paralysis and even death.